This paper focuses on Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) as a technology for digitizing analog signals. PCM is a widely used technique that enables precise encoding and transmission of analog information through digital pulse signals. The basic principles of PCM are explained here. PCM converts an analog signal into a digital form through sampling, quantization, and encoding. Sampling refers to the conversion of a continuous analog signal into discrete samples at regular time intervals. Then, quantization is applied to round each sample to the nearest possible quantization value, reducing the continuous range of values to discrete levels. Afterward, each quantized sample is encoded into a digital form. PCM is commonly used in various communication systems as well as in digital audio processing. In communication systems, PCM enables reliable transmission of voice signals, music, and other audio content over digital networks. In digital audio processing, PCM is used for recording, playback, and manipulation of sound, enabling high-quality reproduction and precise processing.

The rapid development of learning and instructional design technology has resulted in the creation of numerous instructional design models. These models are often used as the basis for instructional design courses, providing students with an introduction to the field. The abundance of models can be overwhelming, especially for beginners in the field. This prompts the question - which model is the best to use? The objective of this paper was to review the comparative advantages of selected models and to assist instructors in choosing the most appropriate one. Desk research was conducted to establish a list of qualitative indicators that can be used to evaluate and benchmark selected models. The models (such as ADDIE, SAMR etc.) were examined, and a benchmarking table was created. The paper provided insight into the most important characteristics of the selected models and presented arguments on their advantages and disadvantages. Based on the results of analysis and benchmarking indicators, the ADDIE model demonstrated slight advantages over other models. This paper compares four important models and recommends the ADDIE model as the most complete, structured, flexible, and easy to implement.

Gene chips are widely used in animal and plant science. Generally, microarrays are of two types, cDNA or oligonucleotide, cDNA was developed at Stanford University, while oligonucleotides were developed by Affymetrix. We will explore genetic chips, the technology used for their production and reading, and their applications. Gene chips, which are becoming increasingly popular throughout the field of molecular biology and biotechnology, are a recently developed technique that provides efficient access to genetic information using miniaturized high-density arrays of DNA or oligonucleotide probes. Both fundamental and applied research benefit greatly from the specific advantages of this method. There are several steps in the design and implementation of DNA chip technology: probe generation, chip fabrication, sample preparation, analysis, readout, and software. At present, the main application of large-scale microarrays is comparative expression analysis. Microarray technology allows for the analysis of expression profiles for thousands of genes in parallel. One of the most significant applications of this technique is gene expression and profiling on a genome-wide scale. Genechip technology is a new technique that will undoubtedly significantly increase the speed of molecular biology research.