Pakistan possesses the fourth largest irrigation network in the world, serving 20.2 million hectares of cultivated land. With an increasing irrigated area, Pakistan is short of freshwater resources and faces severe water scarcity and food security challenges. This is the first comprehensive study on the water footprint (WF) of crop production in Peshawar Basin. WF is defined as the volume of freshwater required to produce goods and services. In this study, we assessed the blue and green water footprints (WFs) and annual blue and green water consumption of major crops (maize, rice, tobacco, wheat, barley, sugarcane, and sugar beet) in Peshawar Basin, Pakistan. The Global Water Footprint Assessment Standard (GWFAS) and AquaCrop model were used to model the daily WF of each crop from 1986 to 2015. In addition, the blue water scarcity, in the context of available surface water, and economic water productivity (EWP) of these crops were assessed. The 30 year average blue and green WFs of major crops revealed that maize had the highest blue and green WFs (7077 and 2744 m³/ton, respectively) and sugarcane had the lowest blue and green WFs (174 and 45 m³/ton, respectively). The average annual consumption of blue water by major crops in the basin was 1.9 billion m³, where 67% was used for sugarcane and maize, covering 48% of the cropland. The average annual consumption of green water was 1.0 billion m³, where 68% was used for wheat and sugarcane, covering 67% of the cropland. The WFs of all crops exceeded the global average. The results showed that annually the basin is supplied with 30 billion m³ of freshwater. Annually, 3 billion m³ of freshwater leaves the basin unutilized. The average annual blue water consumption by major crops is 31% of the total available surface water (6 billion m³) in the basin. Tobacco and sugar beet had the highest blue and green EWP while wheat and maize had the lowest. The findings of this study can help the water management authorities in formulating a comprehensive policy for efficient utilization of available water resources in Peshawar Basin.

Environmental sustainability of grey water footprints in Peshawar Basin: Current and future reduced flow scenarios for Kabul River

Jatropha curcas (JC), as a biofuel plant, has been reported to have various desired characteristics such as high oil content seeds (27–40%), fast-growth, easy cultivation, drought tolerance, and can be grown on marginal soil and wasteland, requiring fewer nutrients and management and does not interfere with existing food crops, insects, and pest resistance. This investigation was the first study of its type to use climatological data, blue/green water footprints, and JC seed production to identify suitable sites for JC bioenergy plantation using the AquaCrop FAO model across the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in northwest Pakistan. The JC seed yield (10 ton/ha) was at a maximum in the districts of Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat, South Waziristan, and Dera Ismail Khan, in addition to its frontier regions, Tank, Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber, Kohat, Charsadda, Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera, respectively. Green water footprint (264 m³/ton of JC seed) and blue water footprint (825 m³/ton) was less in these areas. Furthermore, the results revealed that, depending on climatological circumstances, the southern part of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is more appropriate for JC bioenergy plantation than the northern region. The districts of Bannu, Karak, Hangu, Kurram, North Waziristan, Lakki Marwat, South Waziristan, Dera Ismail Khan, and its frontier regions, Tank, Peshawar, Mohmand, Orakzai, Khyber, and Kohat, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province were identified to be the most ideal places for JC bioenergy plantation. As a result, under the Billion Tree Afforestation Project (BTAP) and the Green Pakistan Project, the Forest Department of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa should consider planting JC species in the province’s southern region. Furthermore, this research will provide scientific information to government and private sector officials for better management and optimum yield of the JC biofuel crop, as well as for the promotion of energy forestry in Pakistan.

The fresh resource of water plays an important for social and economic development of a country. Measuring water pollution is one of the main challenges in the water resource management. During this study, grey water footprint (GWF), the volume of fresh water required to assimilate a pollutant load to maintain water quality standards, was used to analyse the environmental sustainability of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) load from animal manure, artificial fertilizers, households and industrial sources in Peshawar Basin, Pakistan from 1986 to 2015. The water pollution level (WPL) was estimated under reduced runoff scenarios after an increased use of upstream water from Kabul river in Afghanistan areas. Averaged 30-years N and P associated GWF in Peshawar Basin were 50*108 cu.m/y and 50*109 cu.m/y, respectively. N-related WPL was found 8% in 1992 and 32% in 2001 within the sustainability limit of 100%. Relatively P-related WPL exceeded sustainable limits of 100% in every year under normal runoff and has further worsened under reduced runoff scenarios. This study confirms the deterioration of water resource of Kabul river and may prove to be helpful for future planning and management of Kabul river.