Pakistan possesses the fourth largest irrigation network in the world, serving 20.2 million hectares of cultivated land. With an increasing irrigated area, Pakistan is short of freshwater resources and faces severe water scarcity and food security challenges. This is the first comprehensive study on the water footprint (WF) of crop production in Peshawar Basin. WF is defined as the volume of freshwater required to produce goods and services. In this study, we assessed the blue and green water footprints (WFs) and annual blue and green water consumption of major crops (maize, rice, tobacco, wheat, barley, sugarcane, and sugar beet) in Peshawar Basin, Pakistan. The Global Water Footprint Assessment Standard (GWFAS) and AquaCrop model were used to model the daily WF of each crop from 1986 to 2015. In addition, the blue water scarcity, in the context of available surface water, and economic water productivity (EWP) of these crops were assessed. The 30 year average blue and green WFs of major crops revealed that maize had the highest blue and green WFs (7077 and 2744 m³/ton, respectively) and sugarcane had the lowest blue and green WFs (174 and 45 m³/ton, respectively). The average annual consumption of blue water by major crops in the basin was 1.9 billion m³, where 67% was used for sugarcane and maize, covering 48% of the cropland. The average annual consumption of green water was 1.0 billion m³, where 68% was used for wheat and sugarcane, covering 67% of the cropland. The WFs of all crops exceeded the global average. The results showed that annually the basin is supplied with 30 billion m³ of freshwater. Annually, 3 billion m³ of freshwater leaves the basin unutilized. The average annual blue water consumption by major crops is 31% of the total available surface water (6 billion m³) in the basin. Tobacco and sugar beet had the highest blue and green EWP while wheat and maize had the lowest. The findings of this study can help the water management authorities in formulating a comprehensive policy for efficient utilization of available water resources in Peshawar Basin.

Groundwater is the major source of drinking, domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes in the arid and semi-arid areas and its quality is important factor determining its suitability. Our objectives were to evaluate the groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and irrigation, spatial distribution, and homogeneity or heterogeneity levels between the physicochemical parameters. Standards methods were used to analyze the groundwater samples. The result reveals that sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) are the most dominant cation and anions. According to hydro-chemical facies, the majority samples water types are Na-Cl, Na-HCO₃⁻. Wilcox diagram was used to evaluate the groundwater quality, and 60% of samples fall in (C3-S2, C4-S2, and C3-S3) water quality class. Highly significant correlation was observed between Cl⁻ and SO₂^4- with Na⁺ and positive correlation between the pH and CO²₃⁻. The cluster analyses indicate that Cl⁻ very close similarities with TDS. The 84% of groundwater samples are unsuitable for the potable use as per WHO guidelines. The findings of this study are playing a crucial role in groundwater management.

Deforestation in remote mountainous regions is considered to be one of the fundamental elements for triggering changes in the biophysical environment driven by various socioeconomic parameters, particularly population growth and road construction in a previously inaccessible environment. A sudden increase in population exerts adverse impacts on the local natural resources, specifically forests. The present study is conducted in Tribal District Kurram, located in the northwestern mountainous belt of Pakistan. This study is aimed to analyze the temporal pattern of deforestation and to explore the impacts of population growth and accessibility on forest cover. It is based on remotely sensed data, focused group discussions, interviews and field observations. The satellite images were processed and classified using ArcGIS and ERDAS IMAGINE. The time span of this study is 1972 to 2019, which is further divided into three periods. The results revealed that almost half (48%) of the forest cover was reduced in ca. five decades. However, considerable variation has been observed in the deforestation rate during the study period. The results of this study revealed that both population change and accessibility have played a vital role in the deforestation process.

Land use land cover (LULC) changes have emerged as a pivotal driver of environmental challenges in the Northwestern mountainous belts of Pakistan. These changes are increasingly recognized for their pervasive impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The conversion of pastures and rangelands into other land uses is a key facet of LULC change, posing a substantial threat to the availability of animal feed sources. This study aims to evaluate LULC changes and investigate their consequences on animal feed sources in the Upper Kurram Valley, located in the Koh-e-Safid mountain of Northwestern Pakistan. The study employs a multidisciplinary methodological approach that incorporates remotely sensed data, focus group discussions, interviews, and field observations. The study findings uncover a notable decline in rangeland (26.6%) and forest cover (28.7%) over a span of more than three decades (1987–2019). The shrinkage of rangeland has spurred an increased reliance on crop residues and fodder crops. The free grazing practices have been replaced by stall-feeding and controlled grazing methods. This declining rangeland resources has negatively affected animal husbandry, and the average number of livestock per household decreased from 32 in 1980 to 3.7 in 2019. In essence, this transition has not only impacted animal feed sources but also reshaped the livelihoods of local communities closely connected to animal husbandry.