Pisum sativum L., commonly referred to as dry, green, or field pea, is one of the most common legumes that is popular and economically important. Due to its richness in a variety of nutritional and bioactive ingredients, the consumption of pea has been suggested to be associated with a wide range of health benefits, and there has been increasing focus on its potential as a functional food. However, there have been limited literature reviews concerning the bioactive compounds, health-promoting effects, and potential applications of pea up to now. This review, therefore, summarizes the literature from the last ten years regarding the chemical composition, physicochemical properties, processing, health benefits, and potential applications of pea. Whole peas are rich in macronutrients, including proteins, starches, dietary fiber, and non-starch polysaccharides. In addition, polyphenols, especially flavonoids and phenolic acids, are important bioactive ingredients that are mainly distributed in the pea coats. Anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid, lectin, and trypsin inhibitors, may hinder nutrient absorption. Whole pea seeds can be processed by different techniques such as drying, milling, soaking, and cooking to improve their functional properties. In addition, physicochemical and functional properties of pea starches and pea proteins can be improved by chemical, physical, enzymatic, and combined modification methods. Owing to the multiple bioactive ingredients in peas, the pea and its products exhibit various health benefits, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-renal fibrosis, and regulation of metabolic syndrome effects. Peas have been processed into various products such as pea beverages, germinated pea products, pea flour-incorporated products, pea-based meat alternatives, and encapsulation and packing materials. Furthermore, recommendations are also provided on how to better utilize peas to promote their development as a sustainable and functional grain. Pea and its components can be further developed into more valuable and nutritious products.

A neutral ginger polysaccharide fraction (NGP) was isolated from ginger, and its primary structures and immunomodulatory activity were investigated. The results showed that NGP had a low molecular weight of 6305 Da. NGP principally consisted of glucose (93.88%) together with minor levels of galactose (3.27%) and arabinose (1.67%). Besides, results of methylation analysis and 1D/2D NMR spectroscopy demonstrated that NGP was α-glucan which had the main chain of 1,4-linked α-d-Glcp and α-d-Glcp residues branched at C-6 position which was different from the common triple helical β-glucans. NGP also displayed a remarkable immunological activity on the RAW264.7 cells in vitro. It could significantly enhance the proliferation of macrophages without cytotoxicity and increase the production of immune substances (NO, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6). The secretion at the concentration of 200 μg/mL was 29.41 μM, 1496.71, 44.30 and 1889.83 pg/mL for each substance, respectively. The results indicated that NGP could be a potential immune agent and might provide meaningful information for further chain conformation and immune mechanism research.

Introduction: Codon basis is a common and complex natural phenomenon observed in many kinds of organisms.Methods: In the present study, we analyzed the base bias of 12 mitochondrial core protein-coding genes (PCGs) shared by nine Amanita species.Results: The results showed that the codons of all Amanita species tended to end in A/T, demonstrating the preference of mitochondrial codons of Amanita species for a preference for this codon. In addition, we detected the correlation between codon base composition and the codon adaptation index (CAI), codon bias index (CBI), and frequency of optimal codons (FOP) indices, indicating the influence of base composition on codon bias. The average effective number of codons (ENC) of mitochondrial core PCGs of Amanita is 30.81, which is 0.08 and RSCU > 1) in nine Amanita species, and GCA and AUU were the most widely used optimal codons. Based on the combined mitochondrial sequence and RSCU value, we deduced the genetic relationship between different Amanita species and found large variations between them.Discussion: This study promoted the understanding of synonymous codon usage characteristics and evolution of this important fungal group.

Natural borneol (NB, called “Bingpian”) is an important traditional Chinese medicine to restore consciousness, remove heat and relieve pain, all of which are inflammation-related diseases. Recently, due to the limited source of NB, synthetic borneol (SB) is widely used as a substitute for NB in clinics. However, little is known about the effects of SB instead of NB. Herein, the aim of the present study was to compare NB and SB on chemical profiles by gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) analysis, anti-inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) metabolomic approaches in endotoxic fever induced in rats. Results showed that, in total, 13 volatile components could be identified in NB and SB by GC-MS analysis, in which a significant difference between them still existed. The main constituents in SB were iso-borneol and borneol, while borneol contributes to 98.96% of the amount in NB. Additionally, both NB and SB exhibited remarkable anti-inflammatory effects to reduce the level of inflammatory factors including NO, TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, and lower the high body temperature in rats with endotoxic fever induced by LPS. Moreover, it seems that NB exhibited higher efficacy than SB. The unequal bioactive efficiency between NB and SB was also indicated by means of non-targeting metabolomics. Based on UPLC-Q-TOF/MS technology, 12 biomarkers in the serum of fever rats were identified. Pathway analysis revealed that the anti-fever effect of NB and SB was related to regulating the abnormal glycerophospholipid, linoleic acid and alpha-linoleic acid metabolism pathways in the fever model. Results indicated that there was still a great difference between NB and SB involving chemical constituents, anti-inflammation activity and the ability to regulate the abnormal metabolism pathways of the fever model. Certainly, further studies are warranted to better understand the replacement rationale in medicinal application.