The present study presents a detailed anatomical description of the petrous bone of the camel skull. The petrous temporal bone in camels has a distinctive shape. Not all parts were visible. This work gives a detailed gross anatomical description of the petrous bone in the camel’s skull. The skulls were prepared by using boiling and maceration techniques. The study showed that the petrous part is the main part of the temporal bone in the skull and forms part of the lining of the cranium. The study showed that the petrous temporal bone consists of the following parts: the mastoid process, the external auditory meatus, the muscular prominence, and the styloid process, as well as the petrous part. The petrous part has a base, an apex, three angles (cranial, caudal, and ventral), and three surfaces: the medial, the lateral, and the ventral surfaces. The lacerate sulcus was described in this study as a groove that runs the ventrally basilar part of an occipital bone side to the pterygoid canal. The results obtained from this study were important in enriching comparative anatomy in different animals.

This study aimed to describe the anatomy of the nerve supply of the hindlimb’s distal portion in a dromedary camel’s foot. In our study, we used ten adult slaughtered dromedary camels (twenty distal hindlimbs) of different sexes and ages (4–6 years). The hindlimbs were preserved using 10% formalin for about one week. The distal part of the hindlimb of the camels was dissected with extreme precision to show the group of nerves responsible for the nervous supply to the distal part of the hindlimb in dromedary camels. This study shows the numerous branches of the superficial fibular nerve along its extension to the dorsal surface metatarsus and the abaxial aspect of the third digit. The results show that the tibial nerve possesses many branches along its extension to the plantar surface skin of the metatarsus. Additionally, it provides the axial and abaxial plantar surfaces of the fourth digit and the interdigital surfaces as well as its branches to supply the plantar-abaxial and plantar-axial of the third digit. The present study shows the anatomical nerve supply of the hindlimb’s distal portion that is essential for anesthesia and surgery in this region.

The current study aims to understand the dynamics of the masticatory muscles during closure and opening actions and assess the functional architecture of the various chewing muscles in camels. Twelve healthy adult camel heads of different sexes and ages (2-3 years) from the typical slaughterhouses in Iraq and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A comparative anatomical examination and masticatory muscle linear measurements were performed on the head of the slaughtered camel. These included the masseter, temporalis, pterygoideus, and digastricus muscles. This study included recording the values of each fiber length, weight of the muscle, the mass of muscle, volume of muscle, density, Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), force, maximum isometric force, torque, and kinetic energy of the masticatory muscles. According to this study, the masseter and temporalis muscles closed the camel's jaw, while the digastricus and pterygoideus muscles opened the mandible. This study showed that the group of muscles that closed the jaw had greater PCSA values, maximum isometric force, force, torque, and kinetic energy than those that opened the mandible. It is believed that jaw closure is regarded as the muscles' heightened activity that closes the jaw. This study proved that each muscle has its own physical characteristics that differ from others.

The current research aimed to expand on the morphometry, radiology and histochemistry of the internal olfactory bones in 12 camels' skulls in both genders collected from local slaughterhouses in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Iraq. The camel skull was elongated and had a pyramid shape with a base and apex. The bones of the nose were comparatively short, with a short middle and a long lateral process, and serrated rostro-medially. The posterior opening of the nasal cavity was opened caudally and separated into 2 partitions by vomer bone which had a length between 14.33±0.33-18.66±0.33cm. The cavum nasi (CN) comprised 3 turbinates: the dorsal one trimming with a skinny process, totaling 12.76±0.43-13.90±0.20 cm, the ventral was well established, with a total length between 13.6±0.20-17.63±0.08 cm, the middle was ventro-caudal and located rostrally to the ethmoidal turbinate. The longitudinal and transverse axes of ethmoidal bone were between 3.46±0.14-4.7±0.40 cm and 3.66±0.24-3.73±0.23 cm respectively. CN had also four nasal meatuses or passages: dorsal, middle ventral, and a common meatus. The ventral portion that was shaped by a semi-channel formed a sulcus vomeris. Histological records specify that rostral, caudal, and ethmoidal turbinates chiefly have a sensory purpose, whereas the middle turbinate contributes to mucosal defense. The morphometrical, radiological, and histochemical information of the nasal region presented in this research will enhance the understanding of nasal cavity patterns that may significantly influence osteoarcheology and also provide information for comparative research that can be utilized for application in clinical veterinary practices and even in zooarchaeology.

This study aimed to describe the anatomical and morphological features of cranial suture joints in sixteen sheep skulls and to compare these findings with those reported in other domesticated species. The study of cranial sutures extends beyond morphology to elucidate mechanisms of skull growth, as suture patterns function as regulatory units in cranial development, highlighting the important roles in comparative and evolutionary studies, age estimation, and fracture identification, and serving as reference points in veterinary surgery and radiography. A detailed anatomical examination of sheep skulls was performed to identify and classify cranial sutures based on their morphology and anatomical location. Sutures were categorized according to their structural patterns and regional distribution within the cranium. Twenty-eight cranial sutures were identified and classified into four morphological types: serrated, plane, squamosal and foliate. These sutures were distributed across the dorsal, ventral, lateral–vertical, and internal cranial regions, reflecting the complex organization of cranial bones, indicating intraspecies diversity influenced by species-specific cranial architecture and developmental factors. The absence of certain sutures, such as the sagittal suture in sheep, was found. This study provides a detailed anatomical reference for cranial sutures in sheep. In sheep, suture morphology is closely related to the skull’s adaptation to mechanical stresses during growth, including forces generated by fighting and self-defense behaviors and high chewing mechanics. The findings offer valuable baseline data for veterinary clinicians and anatomists in distinguishing normal anatomical patterns from congenital cranial abnormalities.

This study aimed to describe the anatomical composition of the Achilles tendon in dromedary camels and to characterize the clinical, radiographic, and ultrasonographic features of tendon laceration and rupture. Six pelvic limbs from an adult healthy Mejhem camel were dissected following fixation in 10% formaldehyde. Additionally, 19 camels with confirmed Achilles tendon injuries were evaluated clinically and by imaging. Anatomically, the tendon is a composite structure formed by the semitendinosus, gastrocnemius (medial and lateral heads), and superficial digital flexor muscles, arranged in superficial and deep layers and inserting at the tuber calcanei. Clinically, affected camels showed acute hindlimb lameness, reduced weight-bearing, and swelling near the calcaneus. Wadeh camels were more frequently affected than other breeds (p < 0.05–0.001). Age > 2 years (OR = 14.06; p < 0.001) and male sex (OR = 28.4; p < 0.001) were significant risk factors, with blunt trauma as the main cause (p < 0.001). Ruptures were more common than lacerations (OR = 28.4; p < 0.001). Radiography revealed soft tissue swelling and occasional calcaneal avulsion fractures, while ultrasonography showed tendon enlargement, fiber disruption, and hypoechoic gaps. These findings highlight the diagnostic value of combined imaging for accurate evaluation and management.