A new Monte Carlo program, Win X-ray, is presented that predicts X-ray spectra measured with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) attached to a scanning electron microscope (SEM) operating between 10 and 40 keV. All the underlying equations of the Monte Carlo simulation model are included. By simulating X-ray spectra, it is possible to establish the optimum conditions to perform a specific analysis as well as establish detection limits or explore possible peak overlaps. Examples of simulations are also presented to demonstrate the utility of this new program. Although this article concentrates on the simulation of spectra obtained from what are considered conventional thick samples routinely explored by conventional microanalysis techniques, its real power will be in future refinements to address the analysis of sample classifications that include rough surfaces, fine structures, thin films, and inclined surfaces because many of these can be best characterized by Monte Carlo methods. The first step, however, is to develop, refine, and validate a viable Monte Carlo program for simulating spectra from conventional samples.

Crack-free Hastelloy X fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) from powder with a standard chemical composition is reported. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis evidenced columnar grains parallel to the building direction. The typical LPBF columnar dendrite microstructure was found to be finer than reported elsewhere. Mo-enriched carbides (~50 nm), presumed to play an important role in the cracking behavior of the alloy, were confirmed along interdendritic regions. Crack-free condition was maintained after heat treatment at 1177 °C for 1 h followed by water quenching, and the resulting microstructure was analyzed.

Scanning electron microscopy is widespread in field of material science and research, especially because of its high surface sensitivity due to the increased interactions of electrons with the target material’s atoms compared to X-ray-oriented methods. Among the available techniques in scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) is used to gather information regarding the crystallinity and the chemistry of crystalline and amorphous regions of a specimen. When post-processing the diffraction patterns or the image captured by the EBSD detector screen which was obtained in this manner, specific imaging contrasts are generated and can be used to understand some of the mechanisms involved in several imaging modes. In this manuscript, we reviewed the benefits of this procedure regarding topographic, compositional, diffraction, and magnetic domain contrasts. This work shows preliminary and encouraging results regarding the non-conventional use of the EBSD detector. The method is becoming viable with the advent of new EBSD camera technologies, allowing acquisition speed close to imaging rates. This method, named dark-field electron backscatter diffraction imaging, is described in detail, and several application examples are given in reflection as well as in transmission modes.

This article reviews different methods used to perform quantitative X-ray microanalysis in the electron microscope and also demonstrates the urgency of measuring the fundamental parameters of X-ray generation for the development of accurate standardless quantitative methods. Using ratios of characteristic lines acquired on the same X-ray spectrum, it is shown that the Cliff and LorimerK_A-Bfactor can be used in a general correction method that is appropriate for all types of specimens and electron microscopes, providing that appropriate corrections are made for X-ray absorption, fluorescence, and indirect generation. Since the fundamental parameters appear in theK_A-Bfactor, only the ratio of the ionization cross sections needs to be known, not their absolute values. In this regard, the measurement of ratios of theK_A-Bfactor (or intensities at different beam energies of the same material with no change of beam spreading in the material) permits the validation for the best models to compute the ratio of ionization cross sections. It is shown, using this method, that the nonrelativistic Bethe equation, to compute ionization cross section, is very close to the equation of E. Casnati et al. (J Phys B15, 155–167, 1982) and also to the equations proposed by D. Bote and F. Salvat (Phys Rev A77, 042701, 2008) for the computation of the ratio of ionization cross sections. The method is extended to show that it could be used to determine the values of the Coster-Kronig transitions factors, an important fundamental parameter for the generation of L and M lines that is mostly known with poor accuracy. The detector efficiency can be measured with specimens where their intensities were measured with an energy dispersive spectrometer detector, the efficiency of which has been measured in an X-ray synchrotron (M. Alvisi et al.,Microsc Microanal12, 406–415, 2006). The spatial resolution should always be computed when performing quantitative X-ray microanalysis and the equations of R. Gauvin (Microsc Microanal13(5), 354–357, 2007) for bulk materials and the one presented in this article for thin films should be used. The effects of X-rays generated by fast secondary electrons and by Auger electrons are reviewed, and their effect can be detrimental for the spatial resolution of materials involving low-energy X-ray lines, in certain specific conditions. Finally, quantitative X-ray microanalysis of heterogeneous materials is briefly reviewed.