The role of the adaptive microenvironment components in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2) infection is widely researched, but remains unclear. Studying the common dynamics of adaptive immune response changes can help understand the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), especially in critical patients. The aim of the present study was to determine the cytokines concentration and leukocyte subpopulations profiles in the severe COVID-19 (n = 23) and critical (n = 18) COVID-19 group distinguished by the computed tomography (CT) severity score. We observed lower percentage of lymphocyte subpopulation, higher neutrophils to lymphocytes ratio (NLR) and higher IL-6 concentration in critical COVID-19 group than in severe group. CT severity score was negative correlated with proportion of lymphocytes, lymphocytes T, CD4+ cells, Treg cells and NK cells and positive correlated with neutrophils, NLR, and IL-6. In critical group more correlations between cytokines and lymphocytes were observed, mainly between TNF-α, IL-1β and lymphocyte subpopulations. The collective assessment of the cytokine profile, leukocyte subpopulations and the CT severity score can help to characterize and differentiate patient in advanced COVID-19 than the study of single parameters. We have shown that the interconnection of elements of the adaptive microenvironment can play an important role in critical COVID-19 cases.

The emergence of tolerance during Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy (VIT) is a complex process. The main goal of VIT is to induce a change from proinflammatory Th2 response to the Th1 response. However, the immune mechanism of acquiring rapid tolerance during VIT has not yet been fully understood. Therefore, we have analyzed (in 4-time points: 0, 2, 6, and 24 weeks after the initiation phase of VIT) the concentration of complement C3, C4, and C5 components, lymphocyte subpopulations (flow cytometry), as well as histamine and tryptase serum concentrations of 43 patients with wasp venom allergy (III and IV Müller grade) classified to ultra-rush treatment and 18 volunteers as the control group (CG). We observed that VIT affected the immune system by inducing changes in the complement system (decreased C3 and C4 compartment protein concentrations) and "normalized" the percentage of lymphocytes and neutrophils in the peripheral blood. Moreover, a significant increase in the percentage of nTreg in the blood of patients treated with VIT was observed. On the other hand, there were no changes in histamine or tryptase concentrations in the blood. Increased percentage of nTreg cells is a well-known mechanism by which VIT affects the immune system. Finally, VIT also modulated the concentrations of the complement components, which may be a previously unknown VIT mechanism of action.

Wasp venom allergy can trigger severe allergic reactions, and predicting these acute responses remains challenging. This study evaluates the utility of immune system indexes, particularly the eosinophil–basophil/lymphocyte (EB/LR) and eosinophil–basophil–platelet/lymphocyte (EBP/LR) ratios, in assessing the severity of allergic reactions in patients with wasp venom allergy. A total of 61 patients with confirmed wasp venom allergy were categorized according to the Mueller scale, which classifies the severity of allergic reactions. Blood samples were analyzed for total and specific IgE levels alongside a range of hematological and biochemical parameters. This study found significant differences in the EB/LR and EBP/LR indexes between patients with mild (Mueller I–II) and severe (Mueller III–IV) allergic reactions, with higher values indicating more severe responses. However, no significant differences were observed in other immune indexes, such as the platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, systemic immune-inflammation index, and systemic inflammatory response index, as well as in additional blood parameters. These findings suggest that the EB/LR and EBP/LR ratios may serve as useful markers for predicting the severity of allergic reactions in patients with wasp venom allergy. This is the first study to establish such a link, although further research with larger cohorts is necessary to confirm these results and their potential application in clinical settings.

Venom immunotherapy (VIT) represents a potential therapeutic approach for the management of venom allergies, aiming to modify the immune response to venom allergens and enhance its precision. Previous studies have demonstrated that VIT induces a shift in T helper cell responses from Th2 to Th1, characterized by the production of IL-2 and interferon-gamma by CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ cells. In order to explore long-term pathways following VIT treatment and verify potential new outcomes, the serum concentrations of 30 cytokines were assessed in a cohort of 61 patients (18 control, 43 study group) exhibiting hypersensitivity to wasp venom. Cytokine levels were measured at 0, 2, 6, and 24 weeks after the initiation phase of VIT in the study group. The present study found no significant alterations in the levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ in the peripheral blood following VIT. However, a noteworthy finding was the substantial increase in the concentration of IL-12, a cytokine capable of promoting the differentiation of Th0 cells into Th1 cells. This observation supports the involvement of the Th1 pathway in the desensitization process induced by VIT. Additionally, the study revealed a significant rise in the levels of IL-9 and TGF-β after VIT. These cytokines may play a role in the generation of inducible regulatory T (Treg) cells, indicating their potential importance in the immune response to venom allergens and the desensitization process associated with VIT. Nevertheless, further investigations are required to comprehend the underlying mechanisms driving the VIT process comprehensively.

INTRODUCTION: Venom Immunotherapy (VIT) stands as an effective approach for addressing Hymenoptera venom allergies, yet the intricate journey of reprogramming the immune system’s hypersensitive response to wasp venom allergens remains a frontier ready for exploration. Generally, VIT orchestrates a shift in the polarization of Th2 and Th1 lymphocytes, fostering a greater prevalence of tolerogenic reactions mediated by Treg lymphocytes and dendritic cells. This orchestrated shift precipitates a decline in the activity and abundance of eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells — key effector cells in allergic reactions. These transformative alterations stem from intricate cell-to-cell communication modulated by cytokines. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this investigation, correlated was data derived from the immune system analysis of individuals with wasp venom allergy (Muller’s scale III and IV) undergoing VIT, drawing samples at intervals of 0, 2, 6, and 24 weeks post-initial dose. These findings were compared with outcomes from a control group experiencing mild inflammatory reactions post-wasp sting. The authors’ scrutiny encompassed 50 diverse immune system components, spanning white blood cell subpopulations, complement components (C3, C4, and C5), concentrations of histamine and tryptase, and selected cytokine concentrations encompassing interleukins, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, transforming growth factors beta, chemokines, growth factors, and the IL-1 receptor antagonist. Through meticulous analysis, the present extensive dataset was categorized into distinct groups based on the effects elicited by VIT: immediate, delayed, late effect, and temporary. RESULTS: Our findings unveiled compelling correlations in various VIT response types, particularly linked to IL4, IL7, IL12, IL15, IL17, and CCL3. CONCLUSIONS: These observed shifts underscore the pivotal roles individual cytokines and their interactions play in the desensitization process induced by VIT treatment. However, a comprehensive understanding of this intricate process warrants further in-depth investigation. INTRODUCTION: Venom Immunotherapy (VIT) stands as an effective approach for addressing Hymenoptera venom allergies, yet the intricate journey of reprogramming the immune system’s hypersensitive response to wasp venom allergens remains a frontier ready for exploration. Generally, VIT orchestrates a shift in the polarization of Th2 and Th1 lymphocytes, fostering a greater prevalence of tolerogenic reactions mediated by Treg lymphocytes and dendritic cells. This orchestrated shift precipitates a decline in the activity and abundance of eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells — key effector cells in allergic reactions. These transformative alterations stem from intricate cell-to-cell communication modulated by cytokines. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this investigation, correlated was data derived from the immune system analysis of individuals with wasp venom allergy (Muller’s scale III and IV) undergoing VIT, drawing samples at intervals of 0, 2, 6, and 24 weeks post-initial dose. These findings were compared with outcomes from a control group experiencing mild inflammatory reactions post-wasp sting. The authors’ scrutiny encompassed 50 diverse immune system components, spanning white blood cell subpopulations, complement components (C3, C4, and C5), concentrations of histamine and tryptase, and selected cytokine concentrations encompassing interleukins, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, transforming growth factors beta, chemokines, growth factors, and the IL-1 receptor antagonist. Through meticulous analysis, the present extensive dataset was categorized into distinct groups based on the effects elicited by VIT: immediate, delayed, late effect, and temporary. RESULTS: Our findings unveiled compelling correlations in various VIT response types, particularly linked to IL4, IL7, IL12, IL15, IL17, and CCL3. CONCLUSIONS: These observed shifts underscore the pivotal roles individual cytokines and their interactions play in the desensitization process induced by VIT treatment. However, a comprehensive understanding of this intricate process warrants further in-depth investigation.