Off Grade Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is known as renewable waste source. By catalytic cracking of Off Grade CPO, it is potential use for biogasoline. However, the production remains a problem from heterogeneous catalysis. Active site of α-Fe₂O₃ can be improved with metal impregnation of Cobalt (Co) and Molybdenum (Mo). Therefore, this study were: (1) to synthesize Co-Mo/α-Fe₂O₃ catalyst assisted by ultrasonic wave, and (2) to synthesize biogasoline from Off Grade CPO by catalytic cracking method using Co-Mo/α-Fe₂O₃ catalyst with determining the ratio effect of Co:Mo metal impregnation and the effect of its concentration. The steps included: (1) synthesis of hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) with precipitation method, (2) impregnation of Co-Mo metal on hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) using the wet impregnation method with the ratio of addition of Co-Mo metal with 1:2; 1:1; 2:1, (3) catalytic cracking of Off Grade CPO using Co-Mo/α-Fe₂O₃ catalyst with concentration of 0.5%; 1%; and 1.5% w/w, and (4) Characterization and identification of biogasoline components using GC-MS and FTIR. The results showed that Co-Mo/α-Fe₂O₃ catalyst was successfully synthesized as confirmed by XRD and SEM. The best catalytic cracking of Off Grade CPO was carried out by 0.5% w/w Co-Mo(1:1)/α-Fe₂O₃ catalyst which produced biogasoline yield of 31.37%. The characteristics of the best synthesized biogasoline included density of 0.77 g/cm³, viscosity of 2.561 cSt, refractive index of 1.454, acid number of 56.793 mg KOH/g, and iodine number of 100.515 g I₂/100 g. The main component of biogasoline was undecane compound.

This research aims to synthesize biogasoline from used cooking oil using a catalyst of chicken eggshell based CaO impregnated with $\gamma$-Al$_2$O$_3$ through catalytic cracking, as well as to characterize the final product. Cracking optimization was carried out by varying the catalyst calcination temperature (650, 750 and 850$^\circ$C) and the catalyst concentration (1, 2 and 3 wt.%). The stages of this research were (1) characterization of used cooking oil (density, viscosity, refractive index, and iodine number) (2) synthesis of the CaO/$\gamma$-Al$_2$O$_3$, (3) catalytic cracking of used cooking oil with the use of the synthesized catalyst, and (4) characterization and identification of biogasoline. The results showed that the optimum condition for catalytic cracking was obtained at the calcination temperature of 650 $^\circ$C. The synthesized biogasoline has the following characteristics, i.e. density of 0.776 g ml$^{-1}$, viscosity of 1.84 mm$^2$ s$^{-1}$, a refractive index of 1.43, and the iodine number of 22.85 g I$_2$ per 100 g. The synthesized biogasoline contained alkane, alkene and carboxylic acid compounds, C$_2$-C$_19$. This composition was dominated by compounds belonging to biogasoline (C$_5$-C$_12$) amounting to 94.5 wt.% as confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses.

Standard Born-Haber thermodynamic cycles often deviate from experimental data in systems exhibiting non-ideal ionic behavior. This manuscript proposes a redesigned "Universal Born-Haber" equation that incorporates Polarization Energy (Φ pol), Structural Strain (δ strain), and Surface Energy (γ). By accounting for covalent character and lattice distortions, this model provides a high-fidelity predictive tool for transition metal halides, doped ceramics, and nanostructured functional materials.

We propose a universal, non-static model for the calculation of atomic radii that transcends traditional periodic table lookup values. By integrating the Lanthanide/Actinide Contraction (Λ), subshell penetration factors (π), and the Electron-to-Proton Ratio (Ne/Z), this equation provides a continuous function for atomic size applicable to neutral atoms, ions, and matter under extreme stellar pressures. Preliminary comparisons with experimental data for transition metal 'twins' (e.g., Zr and Hf) demonstrate a predictive accuracy within ±1.5%

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