The manufacture, characterisation and application of carbon cloth (CC) are reviewed and its use as an electrode in fundamental electrochemical studies and technological applications over the last fifty-five years is considered. The most widely used precursors to produce commercial CC are polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibres manufactured by heat treatment at 1500–2000 ^o C. Carbon cloth has good electrical conductivity, high mechanical strength and high chemical resistance. CC is a versatile electrode material that can operate over a wide potential range in aqueous electrolytes and molten salts. Chemical and thermal methods can enhance the surface area and help control CC surfaces’ wettability. Electrodes can be decorated by nanostructured carbons, precious metal nanoparticles or enzyme immobilisation to modify surface functionality, improve activity and widen applications. The doping of CC with polymers, metals and metal oxides has enabled its use in sensors, electrosynthesis of chemicals, environmental remediation and water treatment, as well as energy storage and conversion. Electrochemical cells incorporating CC ranging from three-electrode laboratory bench cells to pilot plant flow cells are illustrated. The characterisation of hydrodynamics, mass transport rates and potential/current distributions in CC-equipped flow cells using experimental and computational fluid dynamics approaches are analysed. Finally, continuing research challenges to CC are highlighted.

This study focused on the generation and characterization of sludge produced by electrocoagulation (EC) combined with Moringa oleifera seed extract (MOSE) to remove water hardness. First, an experimental data set was generated and used as the baseline data for mathematical modeling to identify the effects of different parameters on Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ion hardness removal. Then, using the generated data set, operational conditions were optimized using neural networks integrated with a genetic algorithm, resulting in the selection of Fe electrodes, 12.5 mL of MOSE per 100 mL of water, a current density (j) of 49.16 mA cm⁻², and a reaction time of 5.3 min, considering Ca²⁺ ions as the sample contaminant. Additionally, machine learning analysis identified contaminant type, reaction time, and cathode material as the most influential variables affecting sludge formation, with optimal conditions identified for both Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ion systems. For all the mathematical models, experimental validation was performed. The MOSE extract was characterized for the presence of proteins, polyphenols, flavonoids, and polysaccharides, which provide functional groups that promote aggregation and floc development. Sludge characterization by FT-IR, TGA, and TEM revealed the formation of organic–inorganic hybrid matrices composed of biomolecules interacting with electrochemically generated Fe³⁺ and Al³⁺ species, as well as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions. These results highlight the role of plant-derived biomolecules in modulating the sludge structure and composition, providing insight into the mechanisms of sludge formation and the implications for handling and valorization of EC-based water treatment systems.