Sustaining maize–cereal production under intensive agricultural systems is becoming increasingly challenging because of declining soil quality, low nutrient-use efficiency, and escalating abiotic and biotic stresses. In many regions, long-term rice–wheat cultivation has intensified these constraints, prompting greater interest in diversified production systems such as maize–wheat rotations. Within this context, bio-organic fertilizers (BOF) and microbial biostimulants are increasingly recognized not merely as nutrient inputs but as biologically active regulators of plant–soil interactions. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the role of BOF in maize–cereal production systems, with particular emphasis on maize–wheat rotations. It examines their effects on crop productivity, soil health, nutrient dynamics, and resilience to abiotic and biotic stresses. Current evidence indicates that BOF and microbial biostimulants improve crop performance through interconnected mechanisms, including nutrient mobilization, root development, rhizosphere regulation, and microbial-mediated soil processes. Collectively, these mechanisms enhance nutrient-use efficiency, strengthen stress tolerance, and contribute to more stable crop yields. Importantly, the benefits of BOF extend beyond single growing seasons by promoting soil biological activity, nutrient availability, and system resilience across successive crop cycles. Overall, BOF should be regarded not simply as alternatives to mineral fertilizers but as multifunctional regulators of plant–soil processes that support the sustainability of maize–wheat and other cereal-based cropping systems.

Nitrogen (N) is a critical nutrient influencing maize (Zea mays L.) growth and yield, yet its inefficient application often leads to substantial losses and environmental concerns. Conventional practice of single basal nitrogen application does not synchronize well with maize nitrogen demand, resulting in reduced nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and yield penalties. This study evaluated the effects of split application of nitrogen on the growth, yield, nutrient uptake, and economic returns of maize cultivated in a semi-arid sandy-loam soil. A randomized block design experiment was conducted with treatments including single basal, two-way, and three-way split applications of recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN). Growth parameters such as plant height, leaf area index, and dry matter accumulation, along with yield attributes and total grain yield, were recorded. The results indicated that the three-way split application (one-third at sowing, one-third at 25 days after sowing, and one-third at 50 days after sowing) significantly enhanced maize growth, cob characteristics, grain yield (up to 30% higher), and improved NUE compared to single basal application. Economic analysis showed higher net returns and benefit-cost ratio under the three-way split schedule. These findings suggest that split nitrogen application tailored to crop demand can optimize maize productivity and profitability while reducing nutrient losses in semi-arid regions.

Wheat production in the semi-arid regions of South Asia is increasingly challenged by declining water availability, erratic rainfall patterns, and inefficient conventional crop establishment methods. Sustainable production technologies that improve water-use efficiency and productivity are therefore essential for maintaining food security in the trans-Gangetic plains. The present investigation was conducted during the rabi season of 2024-25 and 2025-26 at Agronomy Research Farm, Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo, Punjab, India, to evaluate the performance of different sowing methods and irrigation regimes on growth, yield, and economics of wheat. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three sowing methods: Conventional Flat Sowing (M₁), Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed (FIRB; M₂), and System of Wheat Intensification (SWI; M₃), along with four irrigation schedules: I₁ (CRI only), I₂ (CRI + Tillering), I₃ (CRI + Tillering + Booting), and I₄ (CRI + Tillering + Booting + Grain Filling). Results revealed that FIRB significantly enhanced plant growth, tiller production, dry matter accumulation, and yield attributes over conventional sowing and SWI. The FIRB method recorded the highest grain yield (4,573 kg/ha), biological yield (11,382 kg/ha), and harvest index (40.2%). Among irrigation levels, I₄ produced superior growth and maximum grain yield (4,726 kg/ha). The interaction of FIRB with irrigation at all four critical stages (I₄M₂) generated the highest net return (₹ 63,856/ha) and benefit–cost ratio (1.20). The study concluded that FIRB combined with optimum irrigation scheduling is a productive and climate-resilient strategy for sustainable wheat cultivation under semi-arid conditions.

Pearl millet is an important climate-resilient cereal crop; however, its productivity remains below potential due to inefficient nitrogen management and widespread zinc deficiency, particularly in the light-textured soils of semi-arid Punjab. Therefore, there is a need to develop an integrated nitrogen and zinc management strategy to enhance nutrient-use efficiency, crop productivity, soil fertility, and economic returns. Based on this, a field experiment was conducted during kharif 2024 and 2025 at Guru Kashi University, Punjab, India, to evaluate the effect of nitrogen and zinc levels on growth, yield, nutrient uptake, soil fertility, and economics of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.). The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with ten treatments comprising different nitrogen levels (80, 100 and 120% recommended dose) applied alone and in combination with zinc at 8 and 10 kg/ha. Integrated application of the recommended nitrogen dose with 100% RDN + 10 kg Zn/ha significantly enhanced dry matter accumulation, effective tillers, grain and stover yield, nutrient uptake, and economic returns over the control. Soil pH, EC, and organic carbon remained unaffected, while available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc showed slight improvement. Higher nitrogen application beyond the recommended dose did not provide additional yield benefits, emphasizing the importance of balanced fertilization. The study indicates that 100% RDN + 10 kg Zn/ha is an effective, sustainable, and economically viable nutrient management strategy for pearl millet under semi-arid Punjab conditions.

Pearl millet is a major cereal crop of the semi-arid regions; however, its productivity is constrained by low nitrogen-use efficiency, suboptimal plant geometry, and poor soil fertility. Therefore, optimising nitrogen scheduling, plant geometry, and biofertilizer inoculation is essential to enhance productivity, nutrient uptake, soil health, and profitability under semi-arid conditions. An experiment was conducted during the kharif seasons of 2023 and 2024 at Rohtak, Haryana, India, to evaluate the effect of nitrogen scheduling, plant geometry, and microbial inoculation on yield, nutrient uptake, soil health, and economics of pearl millet. The experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replications comprising three nitrogen scheduling treatments, two plant geometries, and three microbial inoculation treatments. Results revealed that application of nitrogen in three splits significantly improved grain yield, grain nitrogen uptake, protein content, and post-harvest soil available nitrogen compared to a single basal application. Wider spacing of 60 × 15 cm recorded higher grain yield and net returns over closer spacing. Combined inoculation with Azospirillum + phosphate-solubilising bacteria + arbuscular mycorrhiza significantly enhanced microbial biomass carbon, nutrient uptake, and grain quality. The integrated treatment also produced the highest economic returns with a benefit:cost ratio.