This review presents a comprehensive examination of recent advancements in battery technology, a field that continues to underpin the rapid growth of portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and large-scale energy storage systems. It begins with an overview of conventional battery chemistries, outlining the operating principles, performance metrics, and commercial relevance of both primary systems—such as alkaline and zinccarbon—and secondary systems including nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), and the diverse family of lithiumion batteries. Particular attention is given to widely used Liion chemistries such as lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), and lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), highlighting their strengths, limitations, and evolving roles in modern applications. The review then explores emerging trends shaping the next generation of EV batteries, with a special focus on the integration of graphene and other advanced carbon materials to enhance conductivity, stability, and energy density. Developments in solid-state batteries, hybrid lithium-ion capacitors, and innovative manufacturing techniques are also discussed, alongside progress in fastcharging technologies and intelligent Battery Management Systems (BMS). Sustainability remains a central theme throughout the paper, emphasizing the importance of recycling strategies, material recovery, and ethical sourcing of critical minerals. The review concludes by assessing current market trajectories and identifying key challenges that must be addressed to achieve safer, more efficient, and environmentally responsible energy storage solutions.

The Saudi Arabian mining sector is expanding rapidly. Among the strategic resources under investigation are bauxite ore and its industrial byproduct, red mud, both of which have potential as secondary sources of REEs. This study characterizes the mineralogical and geochemical properties of bauxite and red mud to evaluate REE distribution and behavior. Two groups of bauxite in the Al Ba’itha mine have been petrologically identified: (i) a high-Al group and (ii) a high-Fe ferruginous group. The bauxite was predominantly composed of gibbsite and boehmite, followed by kaolinite, with lesser amounts of hematite, anatase, minor goethite, quartz and calcite. In contrast, red mud generated via the Bayer process predominantly contained hematite and goethite, along with sodalite and cancrinite, and minor residual gibbsite and boehmite, as well as calcite, rutile, anatase, and quartz. The analyzed bauxite averages ~60 wt.% Al₂O₃, primarily from gibbsite and boehmite, affirming its value as an aluminum ore. The red mud was ~27 wt.% Fe₂O₃ and ~22 wt.% Al₂O₃, reflecting its mineralogical complexity and enrichment in iron and aluminosilicate phases. ICP-MS analysis revealed notable REE concentrations: bauxite contained Ce (142.5 ppm), La (63.2 ppm), and Nd (40.0 ppm), while the red mud exhibited higher concentrations of Ce (256 ppm), La (112 ppm), and Nd (77.2 ppm), with total REE contents exceeding 500 ppm. REEs were primarily associated with Al-bearing phases in bauxite, while Dy and Eu could also be associated with Fe-bearing phases. In contrast, HREEs showed a strong positive correlation with Fe₂O₃ in red mud. These findings highlight Saudi red mud as a strategic secondary REE resource within the rapidly expanding Saudi mining sector. They demonstrate strong economic potential and align with global trends seeking sustainable, residue-based pathways for REE recovery.