During the growing season of 2021, 201 soil samples from conventionally and organically managed fields from 10 European countries and 8 cropping systems were taken, and 192 residues of synthetic pesticides were analyzed. Pesticide residues were found in 97% of the samples, and 88% of the samples contained mixtures of at least 2 substances. A maximum of 21 substances were found in conventionally managed fields, and a maximum of 12 were found in organically managed fields. The number and concentration of pesticide residues varied significantly between conventional and organic fields in 70 and 50% of the case study sites, respectively. Application records were available for a selected number of fields (n = 82), and these records were compared to the detected substances. Residues from 52% of the applied pesticides were detected in the soils. Only 21% of the pesticide residues detected in the soil samples were applied during the 2021 growing season. From the application data, predicted environmental concentrations of residues in soil were calculated and compared to the measured concentrations. These estimates turned out not to be accurate. The results of this study show that most European agricultural soils contain mixtures of pesticide residues and that current calculation methods may not reliably estimate their presence.

Purpose: Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) like lindane and DDT have been used extensively after World War II until the 1990s. Still, residues of these pesticides can be found in agricultural soils all over the world, especially in developing countries. Often, they occur in extensive areas and elevated concentrations so that food safety is jeopardized. Hence, simple, cheap, and fast analytical methods are needed for a straight-forward assessment of risks. A miniaturized solid–liquid extraction combined with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) based on a proven ISO method is presented. Methods: The performance of the method is evaluated by extracting three different soils which were spiked with HCH and DDT congeners, and trifluralin, and aged for 35 days. The results are compared with those of a modified quick, easy, cheap, efficient, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method. For further validation, both methods are applied to three environmental soil samples. Results: Validation results show limits of detection and quantification as well as recovery rates in good agreement with standard requirements. The new method was found to be quicker than QuEChERS, which requires time-consuming preparation of reagents. Conclusion: Merits include low time and sample volume requirements (0.5 g) and the possibility to extract many samples simultaneously, which allows the screening of large sample sizes to determine the pollution status of whole landscape regions. However, access to an automated SPME apparatus is assumed. The authors can recommend this method as a cheap and fast alternative where SPME is available.

Khat (Catha edulis) chewing is widespread in the region of East Africa. Even low levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in khat could induce public health concern. In a market-based study, from five popular khat varieties, a total of 35 composite khat samples were analyzed for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its main transformation products, and four hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers. Extraction was carried out by quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe method (QuEChERS). OCP concentrations were determined by head space solid phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME–GC–MS). Every sample contained β-HCH above the maximum residue limit set by the European Commission. For total DDT, this was the case for 25.7% of the samples. The ratios of (p,p′-DDD + p,p′-DDE) to p,p′-DDT were less than one for 85% of khat samples, demonstrating recent use of DDT in khat farmlands. Conversely, the ratio of β-HCH to total HCH varied from 0.56 to 0.96, implying historical input of technical HCH. Assuming a daily chewable portion of 100 g, dietary intakes of p,p′-DDT, total DDT and total HCH by adults ranged from 3.12 to 57.9, 6.49 to 80.2 and 39.2 to 51.9 ng (kg body weight)⁻¹ day⁻¹, respectively. These levels are below acceptable levels suggested by international organizations. Chewing khat showed lower non-cancer health risk, but showed relatively higher cancer risk in terms of OCPs. Because khat is chewed without being subjected to any treatment, uncertainties associated with estimated intakes and health risks should be low. Therefore, this practice is of great concern.

This study assessed the ecological risk of pesticide residue mixtures to earthworms by directly comparing measured exposure concentrations in soils with regulatory toxicity thresholds. Two hundred and fifteen soil samples were considered from conventional and organic farms across 10 European countries and Argentina. For each pesticide residue, a toxicity-exposure ratio (TER) was calculated as the ratio of the chronic toxicity value for earthworms (No Observed Effect Concentration, NOEC) to the measured environmental concentration. To assess mixture risk, individual risk quotients (RQ, the inverse of TER) were summed across all residues detected in each sample to derive a cumulative risk quotient (ΣRQ), assuming concentration addition. Risk thresholds were set at TER ≤ 5, reflecting the regulatory trigger for chronic earthworm toxicity under EU pesticide authorization, and at ΣRQ ≥ 0.2 (i.e., 1/5, since RQ is the inverse of TER) as an indicator of substantial cumulative risk. Seven pesticides had TER values below 5, across 24 of 215 samples (11%). Regarding mixture risk, 34 samples (15.8%) exceeded the ΣRQ ≥ 0.2 threshold, including 6 samples with ΣRQ ≥1. Czechia, Switzerland, and Portugal showed the highest proportions of samples exceeding 0.2. A difference between farming systems was also observed, with conventional farms showing a higher proportion of samples exceeding 0.2 (25%) than organic farms (5%). Chlorpyrifos, despite being banned in the EU in 2020, was a primary risk driver. In 10 samples, however, risk thresholds were only exceeded when pesticides were assessed as a mixture, with individual RQ remaining below the threshold. These samples contained 9–18 pesticides across multiple classes (fungicides, herbicides, insecticides), suggesting diverse modes of action. Our findings suggest that mixture-driven risk, although identified in a relatively low proportion of samples (10 samples, 4.6%), is likely underestimated. Our assessment relied on a single test species, deliberately applied the same regulatory framework used for single-substance PPP approval (without PNEC-based assessment factors). Moreover, our analysis applied a simple concentration addition model, whereas real-world exposures may result in even stronger effects due to potential synergistic interactions. Despite these conservative assumptions, mixture-driven risk was still detected, reinforcing the need for the integration of cumulative risk assessment as a standard component of pesticide risk regulation.

Intensive pesticide use raises concerns for environmental, human, and animal health, yet Europe-wide data on exposure remain fragmented. In this study, 224 pesticide residues were analysed in environmental and biological samples collected during the 2021 growing season across 10 European sites, covering conventional and organic farms. Samples included human (farmers, neighbours, consumers) and animal (cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, chickens, cats) matrices—urine, plasma, faeces, and silicone wristbands—as well as farm feed and environmental matrices including soil, earthworms, crops, water, sediment, outdoor air/dust, and indoor dust. Across all matrices, the top ten rankings based on detection frequency identified 63 priority compounds; 62 were detected in at least two matrices. Notably, non-approved pesticides accounted for 10–70% of the residues in the top ten across human, animal, and environmental samples. Detection frequencies and concentrations were generally higher in conventional than in organic systems, although differences were smaller than expected. The most frequently detected residues were glyphosate (in 9 of 16 matrices) and the banned persistent DDT metabolite p,p′ DDE (in 11 of 16 matrices). Overall, pesticide residues were widespread, mostly at low levels, across humans, animals, and environments in Europe. A One-Health-based harmonised monitoring and risk assessment approach is needed, including both approved and non-approved compounds.