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Stuart C. Carr
Massey University, New Zealand

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Journal article
Published: 20 July 2021 in International Business Review
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Global reward management plays a fundamental role in supporting the attraction, motivation and retention of employees, and yet recent research has underscored limitations of the dominant balance sheet approach, including inequity between host country national and expatriate staff. To shed light on how reward in international contexts can be structured to address issues of fairness and equity, this study explores approaches to global reward in international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), an underexplored context where fairness may be particularly salient. Through an inductive study of 15 INGOs, we show how organizations are reconceptualizing global reward systems by questioning dominant assumptions of the expatriate workforce and the jobs they do, and broadening consideration of reward to include both monetary and non-monetary components. Doing so enables incremental shifts toward strategic alignment of global reward with underlying social values. Our findings provide important insights for organizations operating internationally about how global reward can be structured to address concerns of fairness, while still enabling organizations to meet their demands for particular skills.

ACS Style

Ishbel McWha-Hermann; Jakov Jandric; Emily Cook-Lundgren; Stuart C. Carr. Toward fairer global reward: Lessons from international non-governmental organizations. International Business Review 2021, 101897 .

AMA Style

Ishbel McWha-Hermann, Jakov Jandric, Emily Cook-Lundgren, Stuart C. Carr. Toward fairer global reward: Lessons from international non-governmental organizations. International Business Review. 2021; ():101897.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ishbel McWha-Hermann; Jakov Jandric; Emily Cook-Lundgren; Stuart C. Carr. 2021. "Toward fairer global reward: Lessons from international non-governmental organizations." International Business Review , no. : 101897.

Chapter
Published: 30 March 2021 in Macropsychology
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The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) epitomize a macro-perspective on work as they apply to all societies regardless of their economic, political, or geographic considerations. From this perspective, work is no longer just about being efficient for the benefit of an employing organization (meso-level) or indeed about individuals “coping” with organizational stressors (micro-level). More fundamentally, it serves as a means to meet individuals’ daily aspirations for a decent quality of life and work life. A key concept that centrally bridges – and theoretically connects – these three levels of analysis (macro, meso, micro) is sustainable livelihood. Originally developed with respect to low-income rural communities, it resonates with most workers (and students) today. This chapter illustrates how the concept of sustainable livelihood is relevant to macropsychology and can be a figure-ground reversal in conventional work psychology. Like donning a reversible jacket, a focus on sustainable livelihood adds a fresh perspective, new ideas, and real solutions for specific global humanitarian challenges. It requires for work psychology to consider the macro-level in addition to micro- and meso-level issues. With specific reference to SDG-8 (Decent Work for All), we outline in this chapter how macro-policy related to income (working poverty, income inequality), labour mobility (from precarious informality to inclusive diversity), and the future of work afford work psychologists prime opportunities to contribute towards decent work for all.

ACS Style

Stuart C. Carr; Darrin J. Hodgetts; Johan Potgieter; Ines Meyer. Macropsychology for Decent Work: Sustainable Livelihood. Macropsychology 2021, 213 -231.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Darrin J. Hodgetts, Johan Potgieter, Ines Meyer. Macropsychology for Decent Work: Sustainable Livelihood. Macropsychology. 2021; ():213-231.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Darrin J. Hodgetts; Johan Potgieter; Ines Meyer. 2021. "Macropsychology for Decent Work: Sustainable Livelihood." Macropsychology , no. : 213-231.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2021 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. New Frontiers for International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology 2021, 10, 1 -2.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. New Frontiers for International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2021; 10 (1):1-2.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2021. "New Frontiers for International Perspectives in Psychology." International Perspectives in Psychology 10, no. 1: 1-2.

Original article
Published: 04 December 2020 in Political Psychology
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Building on the U.N. human security taxonomy of 1994, this article aims to explore the constructability of a reliable, valid, parsimonious, useful measure of human security that is relevant to contemporary environments and situations? A seminal 1994 U.N. report, Human Security in Theory and Practice, outlined seven types of human security (personal, health, food, community, economic, environmental, political). A quarter‐century on, we added two more, cyber and national security, and tested if a single measure could capture all nine security concerns. A national sample of N = 1033 New Zealanders completed a brief online measure in which participants reported yes or no to experiencing each type of security and basic demographics. Guttman scaling placed these needs in an ascending order of difficulty. Analogous to a staircase, security may be scaled from personal up to political security (coefficient of reproducibility = .88), with three distinct but interrelated flights: (1) proximal (personal, health, food security); (2) social (cyber, community, economic, environmental); and (3) distal (national, political). We confirmed this nine‐step, three‐flight measure in our sample (Χ2 = 81.72; df = 24; RMSEA = .048, 90%CI [.037, .06]; CFI = .976; TLI = .964; SRMR = .028). The measure showed configural, metric, scalar, and factorial invariances (across random‐split subgroups). Ethnic groups and the precariously employed scored significantly differently, in coherent ways, on the security staircase scale.

ACS Style

Stuart C. Carr; Veronica Hopner; Moh. Abdul Hakim; Darrin J. Hodgetts; Kerry Chamberlain; Nicholas Nelson; Rhys Ball; Harvey Jones. Scaling the Security Staircase. Political Psychology 2020, 1 .

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Veronica Hopner, Moh. Abdul Hakim, Darrin J. Hodgetts, Kerry Chamberlain, Nicholas Nelson, Rhys Ball, Harvey Jones. Scaling the Security Staircase. Political Psychology. 2020; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Veronica Hopner; Moh. Abdul Hakim; Darrin J. Hodgetts; Kerry Chamberlain; Nicholas Nelson; Rhys Ball; Harvey Jones. 2020. "Scaling the Security Staircase." Political Psychology , no. : 1.

Book chapter
Published: 08 November 2020 in Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals
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ACS Style

Project Glow. International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage). Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2020, 620 -629.

AMA Style

Project Glow. International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage). Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. 2020; ():620-629.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Project Glow. 2020. "International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage)." Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals , no. : 620-629.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2020 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. Building Back Better With International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology 2020, 9, 191 -192.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. Building Back Better With International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2020; 9 (4):191-192.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2020. "Building Back Better With International Perspectives in Psychology." International Perspectives in Psychology 9, no. 4: 191-192.

Original article
Published: 27 August 2020 in Sustainability Science
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According to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), poverty eradication in the 21st century means everyday access to decent health care, education and livelihoods, political participation, social inclusion, a clean and safe environment, and more. These are aspirational goals that together support a decent quality of life. Crossing monetary, ‘poverty thresholds’ may enable such goals. Most estimates of ‘where’ the monetary threshold lies derive the estimates circularly from monetary costs of living. The link to quality of living is thereby made by fiat, untested empirically in everyday human experience. We already know we can measure income independently of middle class quality of life, and probe for relationships between the two. Why not for poverty too? A quantity of money where quality of life changed would mark a genuine threshold required for example to escape from poverty traps. Using this approach, studies in quality of work–life, using multiple indicators, have identified at least three thresholds where quality of life ticked markedly upwards, including inter-threshold ranges where gradients went from zero to positive. The concept of work–life balance suggests that this approach may be usefully extended to include quality health care, education, and other SDGs in sustainability science.

ACS Style

Stuart Colin Carr. Setting ‘poverty thresholds’: whose experience counts? Sustainability Science 2020, 16, 31 -36.

AMA Style

Stuart Colin Carr. Setting ‘poverty thresholds’: whose experience counts? Sustainability Science. 2020; 16 (1):31-36.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart Colin Carr. 2020. "Setting ‘poverty thresholds’: whose experience counts?" Sustainability Science 16, no. 1: 31-36.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2020 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. International Perspectives During the Time of COVID-19. International Perspectives in Psychology 2020, 9, 145 -146.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. International Perspectives During the Time of COVID-19. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2020; 9 (3):145-146.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2020. "International Perspectives During the Time of COVID-19." International Perspectives in Psychology 9, no. 3: 145-146.

Reference work
Published: 24 June 2020 in Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals
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Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 8 This goal focuses on promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth, with productive full employment and decent work for everyone (UN 2020). Decent Work Accord...

ACS Style

Project Glow. International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage). Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2020, 1 -9.

AMA Style

Project Glow. International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage). Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. 2020; ():1-9.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Project Glow. 2020. "International Perspectives on Living Wages for Sustainable Livelihoods: Project Glow (Global Living Organisational Wage)." Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals , no. : 1-9.

Journal article
Published: 01 April 2020 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. International Perspectives on Public Health. International Perspectives in Psychology 2020, 9, 65 -66.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. International Perspectives on Public Health. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2020; 9 (2):65-66.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2020. "International Perspectives on Public Health." International Perspectives in Psychology 9, no. 2: 65-66.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2020 in Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology
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Theoretically, a living wage is a threshold that, once crossed, may transform qualities of work life, including from wage injustice to justice, organizational disengagement to commitment, and life dissatisfaction to satisfaction. Initial studies from New Zealand, South Africa and Thailand have found a threshold-like cusp in the relationship between wages and quality-of-work-life. Our aim in this study was to explore whether we would replicate a cusp in a localized study within China, among 135 employees in Shandong Province, Northern China. Survey data used minimal assumption and exploratory techniques to probe links between levels of employees’ (1) take-home wage and (2) net household income; and (3) perceived wage justice, (4) commitment to employing organization, and (5) life satisfaction. Measures were locally aligned and statistically reliable. Consistent with living wage theory, as a participant’s wage tended to cross a pay threshold of (1) RMB 4–5000 personally per month and (2) RMB 7–8000 household monthly, workers tended to report (3) wage justice (in place of injustice), (4) presence (replacing absence) of organizational commitment, and (5) satisfaction with life (replacing dissatisfaction). Our replication aim was met, but generalizing to any kind of national living wage across China would require a larger and more representative study and sample.

ACS Style

Yuting Hu; Stuart C. Carr. Living wages across the Pacific Rim: A localised replication study from China. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology 2020, 14, e18 .

AMA Style

Yuting Hu, Stuart C. Carr. Living wages across the Pacific Rim: A localised replication study from China. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology. 2020; 14 ():e18.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yuting Hu; Stuart C. Carr. 2020. "Living wages across the Pacific Rim: A localised replication study from China." Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology 14, no. : e18.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2019 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. Exciting Developments in International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology 2019, 8, 177 -178.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. Exciting Developments in International Perspectives in Psychology. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2019; 8 (4):177-178.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2019. "Exciting Developments in International Perspectives in Psychology." International Perspectives in Psychology 8, no. 4: 177-178.

Journal article
Published: 01 April 2019 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. Global Mobility and Social Inclusion. International Perspectives in Psychology 2019, 8, 57 -58.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. Global Mobility and Social Inclusion. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2019; 8 (2):57-58.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2019. "Global Mobility and Social Inclusion." International Perspectives in Psychology 8, no. 2: 57-58.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2019 in Journal of Sustainability Research
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Stuart C. Carr; Jarrod Haar; Darrin Hodgetts; James Arrowsmith; Jane Parker; Amanda Young-Hauser; Siautu Alefaio-Tuglia; Harvey Jones. An Employee’s Living Wage and Their Quality of Work Life: How Important Are Household Size and Household Income? Journal of Sustainability Research 2019, 1, 1 .

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Jarrod Haar, Darrin Hodgetts, James Arrowsmith, Jane Parker, Amanda Young-Hauser, Siautu Alefaio-Tuglia, Harvey Jones. An Employee’s Living Wage and Their Quality of Work Life: How Important Are Household Size and Household Income? Journal of Sustainability Research. 2019; 1 (1):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Jarrod Haar; Darrin Hodgetts; James Arrowsmith; Jane Parker; Amanda Young-Hauser; Siautu Alefaio-Tuglia; Harvey Jones. 2019. "An Employee’s Living Wage and Their Quality of Work Life: How Important Are Household Size and Household Income?" Journal of Sustainability Research 1, no. 1: 1.

Journal article
Published: 11 November 2018 in Sustainability
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Working poverty affects over half the world’s working population, yet we know remarkably little about the role of wages in transitioning toward sustainable livelihood. We develop and test a model whereby as pay approaches a living wage range, pay fairness becomes clearly associated with work–life balance; this in turn links to job satisfaction, which is a four-step process at the psychological level. We further extend this by testing a moderated mediated model, whereby income level is tested as a boundary condition. Using data from N = 873 New Zealand employees, we focus on relatively low-waged employees across three levels of income: up to $20,000, $20–40,000, and $40–60,000, with the last band straddling the New Zealand Living Wage. We find strong support for pay fairness predicting work–life balance and job satisfaction, with work–life balance mediating the relationship toward job satisfaction. In addition, we find direct effects from income to work–life balance, although not job satisfaction. Furthermore, two-way moderation is supported toward work–life balance and job satisfaction, with higher income employees reporting higher outcomes when fairness is high. The index of moderated mediation is also significantly supporting, indicating that work–life balance has a stronger mediation effect as income rises. Thus, as workers emerged from working poverty, pay fairness, and in turn work–life balance, became psychologically more salient for happiness at work, implying that a pathway to Sustainable Development Goal 8 includes at least three psychological steps, in addition to the pecuniary issue of pay: fairness, work–life balance, and job satisfaction.

ACS Style

Jarrod Haar; Stuart C. Carr; James Arrowsmith; Jane Parker; Darrin Hodgetts; Siautu Alefaio-Tugia. Escape from Working Poverty: Steps toward Sustainable Livelihood. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4144 .

AMA Style

Jarrod Haar, Stuart C. Carr, James Arrowsmith, Jane Parker, Darrin Hodgetts, Siautu Alefaio-Tugia. Escape from Working Poverty: Steps toward Sustainable Livelihood. Sustainability. 2018; 10 (11):4144.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jarrod Haar; Stuart C. Carr; James Arrowsmith; Jane Parker; Darrin Hodgetts; Siautu Alefaio-Tugia. 2018. "Escape from Working Poverty: Steps toward Sustainable Livelihood." Sustainability 10, no. 11: 4144.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2018 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. International Psychology: Ensuring Healthy Lives and Promoting Wellbeing for All (“SDG3”). International Perspectives in Psychology 2018, 7, 203 -204.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. International Psychology: Ensuring Healthy Lives and Promoting Wellbeing for All (“SDG3”). International Perspectives in Psychology. 2018; 7 (4):203-204.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2018. "International Psychology: Ensuring Healthy Lives and Promoting Wellbeing for All (“SDG3”)." International Perspectives in Psychology 7, no. 4: 203-204.

Editorial
Published: 08 June 2018 in Journal of Organizational Behavior
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Ines Meyer; Stuart C. Carr; Lori Foster. Humanitarian organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior 2018, 39, 543 -544.

AMA Style

Ines Meyer, Stuart C. Carr, Lori Foster. Humanitarian organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 2018; 39 (5):543-544.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ines Meyer; Stuart C. Carr; Lori Foster. 2018. "Humanitarian organizational behavior." Journal of Organizational Behavior 39, no. 5: 543-544.

Original article
Published: 18 April 2018 in Sustainability Science
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Work may be a panacea for poverty but the world of work in 2018 is characterised by ‘Working Poverty,’ including poor wages. Living wages are a contested idea for resolving the paradox, with empirical evidence on how they might do so being scarce. Theoretically, a living wage enables people to escape from poverty traps, indicated by qualitative improvements in quality of work and life beyond a set income. Alternatively, diminishing marginal returns suggest that any wage is a good wage, particularly at low pay levels. We explored these possibilities with almost 900 low-income workers across two diverse countries, New Zealand and South Africa, on reliable indicators of workplace justice, job quality, and life satisfaction. A coherent pattern occurred: trap-rise-pause-rise. At wages below ± $2000 per month, workers felt trapped in injustice, disengagement and dissatisfaction; above, they reported the opposite. This rise was starker in South Africa, where income inequality was highest. After a pause in satisfaction level (rising aspiration/relative deprivation), levels rose, with diminishing marginal returns. This pattern of trap-rise-pause-rise links two ‘competing’ theories of sustainable livelihood. Each matters but at different points on one wage spectrum. Wages may become ‘living’ only once they get ahead of a cusp in a wages-wellbeing curve, at a point or range determined empirically. Replicating this pattern across two very different countries suggests robustness, and may be a promising step towards a science of sustainable livelihood. However, we still require more systematic sampling, across more countries and groups, before the findings may be generalized.

ACS Style

Stuart Colin Carr; Molefe Maleka; Ines Meyer; Marie-Louise Barry; Jarrod Haar; Jane Parker; James Arrowsmith; Christian Yao; Darrin Hodgetts; Harvey Jones; Amanda Young-Hausner; Emeline Afeaki-Mafile’O; Ann-Helen Rasmussen; Siautu Alefaio-Tugia; Ben Falealili; Kate Mafile’O; Tokilupe Pikula; Natassia Wolfgramm; Holika ‘Uhila; Yvonne Falealili; Arno Grueber; Leo Berlim; Emalata Hausia; Mary Ntsweng; Jafta Koza; Doutzen Groothof; Susan Van Schie; Isabel Lyckholm; Abhigyan Naithani. How can wages sustain a living? By getting ahead of the curve. Sustainability Science 2018, 13, 901 -917.

AMA Style

Stuart Colin Carr, Molefe Maleka, Ines Meyer, Marie-Louise Barry, Jarrod Haar, Jane Parker, James Arrowsmith, Christian Yao, Darrin Hodgetts, Harvey Jones, Amanda Young-Hausner, Emeline Afeaki-Mafile’O, Ann-Helen Rasmussen, Siautu Alefaio-Tugia, Ben Falealili, Kate Mafile’O, Tokilupe Pikula, Natassia Wolfgramm, Holika ‘Uhila, Yvonne Falealili, Arno Grueber, Leo Berlim, Emalata Hausia, Mary Ntsweng, Jafta Koza, Doutzen Groothof, Susan Van Schie, Isabel Lyckholm, Abhigyan Naithani. How can wages sustain a living? By getting ahead of the curve. Sustainability Science. 2018; 13 (4):901-917.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart Colin Carr; Molefe Maleka; Ines Meyer; Marie-Louise Barry; Jarrod Haar; Jane Parker; James Arrowsmith; Christian Yao; Darrin Hodgetts; Harvey Jones; Amanda Young-Hausner; Emeline Afeaki-Mafile’O; Ann-Helen Rasmussen; Siautu Alefaio-Tugia; Ben Falealili; Kate Mafile’O; Tokilupe Pikula; Natassia Wolfgramm; Holika ‘Uhila; Yvonne Falealili; Arno Grueber; Leo Berlim; Emalata Hausia; Mary Ntsweng; Jafta Koza; Doutzen Groothof; Susan Van Schie; Isabel Lyckholm; Abhigyan Naithani. 2018. "How can wages sustain a living? By getting ahead of the curve." Sustainability Science 13, no. 4: 901-917.

Journal article
Published: 01 April 2018 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. Invitation to Division 52. International Perspectives in Psychology 2018, 7, 59 -61.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. Invitation to Division 52. International Perspectives in Psychology. 2018; 7 (2):59-61.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2018. "Invitation to Division 52." International Perspectives in Psychology 7, no. 2: 59-61.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2018 in International Perspectives in Psychology
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Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. International Psychology and Partnership (“SDG17”). International Perspectives in Psychology 2018, 7, 1 -3.

AMA Style

Stuart C. Carr, Ines Meyer. International Psychology and Partnership (“SDG17”). International Perspectives in Psychology. 2018; 7 (1):1-3.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stuart C. Carr; Ines Meyer. 2018. "International Psychology and Partnership (“SDG17”)." International Perspectives in Psychology 7, no. 1: 1-3.