Introduction: Safety of the environment in which vegetables are grown, marketed and consumed is paramount as most are eaten raw. Irrigation sources include open drains and streams, which are often contaminated with human and animal waste due to poor sanitation infrastructure. In irrigated vegetable farms using such sources in Ghana, we assessed Escherichia coli counts, antibiotic resistance patterns and resistant genes on irrigated lettuce. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between January–May 2022, involving five major vegetable farms in Ghana. Results: Escherichia coli was found in all 25 composite lettuce samples analyzed. Counts expressed in CFU/g ranged from 186 to 3000, with the highest counts found in lettuce irrigated from open drains (1670) and tap water using hose pipes (3000). Among all bacterial isolates, resistance ranged between 49% and 70% for the Watch group of antibiotics, 59% for the Reserved group and 82% were multidrug-resistant. Of 125 isolates, 60 (48%) were extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing, of which five (8%) had the bla_TEM-resistant gene. Conclusions: Lettuce was contaminated with Escherichia coli with high levels of antibiotic resistance. We call on the Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Food and Drugs Authority and other stakeholders to support farmers to implement measures for improving vegetable safety.

Even in the 21st century, households in rural Ghana still rely on drinking water sources that are contaminated with pathogenic Escherichia coli, the consumption of which results in morbidity and mortality of children and adults. The present study sought to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of E. coli isolated from household drinking water. A total of 49 water samples were analyzed. E. coli was isolated and confirmed from the water samples using the spread plate and biochemical tests, respectively. The Kirby–Bauer method was used for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. E. coli was isolated from 79.6% of the water samples with a mean colony growth of 15 cfu/100 μl. The isolates were absolutely resistant to ceftazidime, cefixime, augmentin, and cefuroxime. In contrast, the isolates were most susceptible to ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, gentamicin, and nitrofurantoin. Multidrug resistance was registered in 48.7% of the isolates. E. coli isolates from each water sample had a Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MAR) index greater than 0.2, indicating increased use or misuse of antibiotics in the study area. This study revealed a high occurrence of multidrug-resistant E. coli and a record-high reduction in the efficacy of important antimicrobials.

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 has affected several production services including the water production and delivery processes. This study considered sachet water quality during the advent of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic using multivariate statistics and Water Quality Index, Water Pollution Index and, hygienic and sanitation practices of sixty-two (62) sachet water vendors using a panel assessment approach. The findings showed that vendors did not adhere to proper hygienic practices as ninety-four (94%) of them did not have health clearance, ninety (90%) did not frequently wash their receptacles for selling daily, and most of them stored and sold in unhygienic environments. Majority of the producers violated Food and Drugs Authority Regulations. The Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis showed that total iron, Total Heterotrophic Bacteria, Salmonella, Cl⁻, E. coli, and fecal and total coliforms were the controlling elements in the water. All the brands were below threshold limits based on the physical water assessment. However, enteric bacteria were observed in all the brands. Water Quality and Water Pollution Indices (WQI and WPI) described all the sachet water brands (vendors and production sites) as excellent for drinking. The WQI computations for samples from the production and vending sites respectively ranged from 0.12 to 0.36 and 0.27–0.42 whereas WPI presented 0.22–0.31 and 0.23–0.32. Comparatively, samples from vendors had elevated elemental concentrations and loads. This suggests that besides sachet water contamination during production and transportation, vendors significantly impacted the quality of sachet water. Sensitization on proper hygienic practices for sachet water production and vending and routine assessment of the quality of sachet water produced or sold is recommended.

In Northern Ghana, reservoirs/dug-outs provide immeasurable services regardless of the season. A study was conducted in Kokoliguo and Nandom-Guo to evaluate health risks from exposure to surface waters. Samples were analyzed for pH, turbidity, conductivity, zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb). Kokoliguo revealed mean levels of 7.52 pH units, 124 NTU, 89.6 µS/cm, 0.004 mg/L (Zn), 0.210 mg/L (Fe), 0.219 mg/L (Mn), 0.007 mg/L (Cu), 0.007 mg/L (Cd) and 0.001 mg/L (Pb). Nandom-Guo recorded mean levels of 7.72 pH units, 11.6 NTU, 240 µS/cm, 0.0375 mg/L (Zn), 0.601 mg/L (Fe), 0.220 mg/L (Mn), 0.009 mg/L (Cu), 0.003 mg/L (Cd) and 0.182 mg/L (Pb). The chronic daily intake_oral for Kokoliguo and Nandom-Guo users occurred in the order; Cu < Cd < Zn < Mn < Fe and Cu < Cd < Zn` < Mn < Fe, respectively. Dermal exposure for Kokoliguo and Nandom-Guo occurred in the order; Zn < Cu < Cd < Mn < Fe and Cd < Zn < Cu < Mn < Fe, respectively. Except for Kokoliguo, hazard index _derm/oral fell below 1. Cancer risk_oral level of Cd exceeded 10e−04 among users. On the contrary, cancer risk_oral levels of Pb ranged from 10e−04 to 10e−07 whereas dermal exposure levels ranged from 10e−09—10e−07. The cancer risk_oral values predict the risk of carcinogenesis due to Cd toxicity. This study recommends crop farmers desist from the use of synthetic fertilizers. Again, improved water sources should be developed for the communities for domestic uses.