The production and consumption of nuts are increasing in the world due to strong economic returns and the nutritional value of their products. With the increasing role and importance given to nuts (i.e., walnuts, hazelnut, pistachio, pecan, almond) in a balanced and healthy diet and their benefits to human health, breeding of the nuts species has also been stepped up. Most recent fruit breeding programs have focused on scion genetic improvement. However, the use of locally adapted grafted rootstocks also enhanced the productivity and quality of tree fruit crops. Grafting is an ancient horticultural practice used in nut crops to manipulate scion phenotype and productivity and overcome biotic and abiotic stresses. There are complex rootstock breeding objectives and physiological and molecular aspects of rootstock–scion interactions in nut crops. In this review, we provide an overview of these, considering the mechanisms involved in nutrient and water uptake, regulation of phytohormones, and rootstock influences on the scion molecular processes, including long-distance gene silencing and trans-grafting. Understanding the mechanisms resulting from rootstock × scion × environmental interactions will contribute to developing new rootstocks with resilience in the face of climate change, but also of the multitude of diseases and pests.

Etiological and epidemiological aspects of apical necrosis of walnut fruit were studied on cultivars Chandler, Franquette, and Hartley in a Spanish walnut orchard during 2007 and 2008. Affected fruit showed brown necrosis beginning at the blossom end of nuts; these symptoms differed from lesions of common blight of walnut (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis). X. arboricola pv. juglandis was consistently isolated from apical lesions throughout the growing season. Field isolates reproduced symptoms observed in the orchard when inoculated on immature detached walnut fruit in the laboratory. Sporadic occurrence of Fusarium spp. and Alternaria spp., mainly in dropped fruit, was attributed to secondary colonization of apical lesions that were originally caused by X. arboricola pv. juglandis. Apical necrosis and common blight were similar in disease epidemiology and cultivar susceptibility; a major increase in epidemics occurred at initial fruit development, and cvs. Chandler and Hartley were more affected than cv. Franquette. Our results suggest that apical necrosis is a new manifestation of walnut blight characterized by distinct symptoms and severe premature fruit drop.

Walnut blight, caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis, is currently controlled in western Europe through a standard schedule of seven applications of sprayed copper from bud break until harvest. A reduced spray schedule, with the last four applications omitted, was compared to the standard program in experimental plots for 3 years. Bacterial population levels in the spring were not significantly different between trees subjected to reduced sprays and those subjected to the standard schedule, but in summer they were higher in the trees that received fewer sprays compared with the standard program. However, disease control on nuts was similar or even better with the reduced spraying program than with the standard program, with the additional economic benefit of four fewer copper applications. After 3 years of using the reduced spray program, the amount of copper accumulated in the soil was significantly lower (about half) than that found in the soil where the standard spray program was implemented.

• Among the traits of breeding interest for the common walnut tree Juglans regia L., characteristics such as timing of budbreak and leaf fall, water-use efficiency and growth performance are regarded as being of utmost relevance in Mediterranean conditions. • The authors evaluated intraspecific variation in δ¹³C (carbon isotope composition, surrogate of intrinsic water-use efficiency, WUE_i) for 22 J. regia families grown in a progeny test under supplementary irrigation, and investigated whether such variation correlated with climatic indicators of native habitats. The genetic relationships between δ¹³C, growth and phenology were also assessed during two consecutive years. • Overall, the most water-use-efficient families (i.e. with higher δ¹³C), which originated mainly from drought-prone provenance regions which have a high vapour pressure deficit and low rainfall, exhibited less height growth and smaller DBH. Using a stepwise regression procedure, δ¹³C was included as the main explanatory variable of genotypic variation in growth traits, together with growing season duration (for DBH in both years) and flushing (for height in 2007). • It was concluded that WUE_i is largely unconnected to phenology effects in the explanation of growth performance for J. regia, therefore suggesting the opportunity of simultaneously selecting for low WUE_i and extended growing period to maximise productivity in non-water-limited environments. • Among the traits of breeding interest for the common walnut tree Juglans regia L., characteristics such as timing of budbreak and leaf fall, water-use efficiency and growth performance are regarded as being of utmost relevance in Mediterranean conditions. • The authors evaluated intraspecific variation in δ¹³C (carbon isotope composition, surrogate of intrinsic water-use efficiency, WUE_i) for 22 J. regia families grown in a progeny test under supplementary irrigation, and investigated whether such variation correlated with climatic indicators of native habitats. The genetic relationships between δ¹³C, growth and phenology were also assessed during two consecutive years. • Overall, the most water-use-efficient families (i.e. with higher δ¹³C), which originated mainly from drought-prone provenance regions which have a high vapour pressure deficit and low rainfall, exhibited less height growth and smaller DBH. Using a stepwise regression procedure, δ¹³C was included as the main explanatory variable of genotypic variation in growth traits, together with growing season duration (for DBH in both years) and flushing (for height in 2007). • It was concluded that WUE_i is largely unconnected to phenology effects in the explanation of growth performance for J. regia, therefore suggesting the opportunity of simultaneously selecting for low WUE_i and extended growing period to maximise productivity in non-water-limited environments. • Parmi les traits d’intérêt pour la sélection de noyer commun Juglans regia, des caractéristiques telles que la précocité de débourrement et la date de chute des feuilles, l’efficience d’utilisation de l’eau et la performance de croissance sont considérées comme étant importantes dans les conditions méditerranéennes. • Les auteurs ont évalué la variation intraspécifique de composition isotopique en 13C (δ¹³C, substitut de l’efficience intrinsèque d’utilisation de l’eau, WUE_i) dans 22 familles de Juglans regia cultivées dans un essai de descendance avec une irrigation d’appoint, et ils ont examiné si la variation était corrélée avec les indicateurs du climat des habitats d’origine. Les relations génétiques entre δ¹³C, croissance et phénologie ont également été évaluées au cours de deux années consécutives. • En général, les familles présentant les plus fortes valeurs de WUE_i (c’est-à-dire avec le δ¹³C le plus élevé), qui proviennent essentiellement des régions de provenance à sécheresse élevée et à fort déficit de pression de vapeur et faibles précipitations, présentent une croissance en hauteur moindre et un plus faible diamètre à 1,3 m. En utilisant une procédure de régression par étapes, δ¹³C a été inclus en tant que principale variable explicative de la variation génotypique des caractéristiques de croissance, de concert avec la durée de la saison de croissance (pour le diamètre à 1,3 m) et le débourrement (pour la hauteur en 2007). • Il a été conclu que WUE_i est en grande partie sans rapport avec la phénologie dans l’explication de la performance de croissance pour J. regia, suggérant donc la possibilité de sélectionner simultanément pour de faibles niveaux de WUE_i et une période de croissance prolongée pour maximiser la productivité dans des environnements où l’eau n’est pas limitante. • Parmi les traits d’intérêt pour la sélection de noyer commun Juglans regia, des caractéristiques telles que la précocité de débourrement et la date de chute des feuilles, l’efficience d’utilisation de l’eau et la performance de croissance sont considérées comme étant importantes dans les conditions méditerranéennes. • Les auteurs ont évalué la variation intraspécifique de composition isotopique en 13C (δ¹³C, substitut de l’efficience intrinsèque d’utilisation de l’eau, WUE_i) dans 22 familles de Juglans regia cultivées dans un essai de descendance avec une irrigation d’appoint, et ils ont examiné si la variation était corrélée avec les indicateurs du climat des habitats d’origine. Les relations génétiques entre δ¹³C, croissance et phénologie ont également été évaluées au cours de deux années consécutives. • En général, les familles présentant les plus fortes valeurs de WUE_i (c’est-à-dire avec le δ¹³C le plus élevé), qui proviennent essentiellement des régions de provenance à sécheresse élevée et à fort déficit de pression de vapeur et faibles précipitations, présentent une croissance en hauteur moindre et un plus faible diamètre à 1,3 m. En utilisant une procédure de régression par étapes, δ¹³C a été inclus en tant que principale variable explicative de la variation génotypique des caractéristiques de croissance, de concert avec la durée de la saison de croissance (pour le diamètre à 1,3 m) et le débourrement (pour la hauteur en 2007). • Il a été conclu que WUE_i est en grande partie sans rapport avec la phénologie dans l’explication de la performance de croissance pour J. regia, suggérant donc la possibilité de sélectionner simultanément pour de faibles niveaux de WUE_i et une période de croissance prolongée pour maximiser la productivité dans des environnements où l’eau n’est pas limitante.