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Venoms are one of the most convergent of animal traits known, and encompass a much greater taxonomic and functional diversity than is commonly appreciated. This knowledge gap limits the potential of venom as a model trait in evolutionary biology. Here, we summarize the taxonomic and functional diversity of animal venoms and relate this to what is known about venom system morphology, venom modulation, and venom pharmacology, with the aim of drawing attention to the importance of these largely neglected aspects of venom research. We find that animals have evolved venoms at least 101 independent times and that venoms play at least 11 distinct ecological roles in addition to predation, defense, and feeding. Comparisons of different venom systems suggest that morphology strongly influences how venoms achieve these functions, and hence is an important consideration for understanding the molecular evolution of venoms and their toxins. Our findings also highlight the need for more holistic studies of venom systems and the toxins they contain. Greater knowledge of behavior, morphology, and ecologically relevant toxin pharmacology will improve our understanding of the evolution of venoms and their toxins, and likely facilitate exploration of their potential as sources of molecular tools and therapeutic and agrochemical lead compounds.
Vanessa Schendel; Lachlan D. Rash; Ronald A. Jenner; Eivind A. B. Undheim. The Diversity of Venom: The Importance of Behavior and Venom System Morphology in Understanding Its Ecology and Evolution. Toxins 2019, 11, 666 .
AMA StyleVanessa Schendel, Lachlan D. Rash, Ronald A. Jenner, Eivind A. B. Undheim. The Diversity of Venom: The Importance of Behavior and Venom System Morphology in Understanding Its Ecology and Evolution. Toxins. 2019; 11 (11):666.
Chicago/Turabian StyleVanessa Schendel; Lachlan D. Rash; Ronald A. Jenner; Eivind A. B. Undheim. 2019. "The Diversity of Venom: The Importance of Behavior and Venom System Morphology in Understanding Its Ecology and Evolution." Toxins 11, no. 11: 666.
In the context of evolutionary arthopodial transformations, centipede ultimate legs exhibit a plethora of morphological modifications and behavioral adaptations. Many species possess significantly elongated, thickened, or pincer-like ultimate legs. They are frequently sexually dimorphic, indicating a role in courtship and mating. In addition, glandular pores occur more commonly on ultimate legs than on walking legs, indicating a role in secretion, chemical communication, or predator avoidance. In this framework, this study characterizes the evolutionarily transformed ultimate legs in Lithobius forficatus in comparison with regular walking legs. A comparative analysis using macro-photography, SEM, μCT, autofluorescence, backfilling, and 3D-reconstruction illustrates that ultimate legs largely resemble walking legs, but also feature a series of distinctions. Substantial differences are found with regard to aspects of the configuration of specific podomeres, musculature, abundance of epidermal glands, typology and distribution of epidermal sensilla, and architecture of associated nervous system structures. In consideration of morphological and behavioral characteristics, ultimate legs in L. forficatus primarily serve a defensive, but also a sensory function. Moreover, morphologically coherent characteristics in the organization of the ultimate leg versus the antenna-associated neuromere point to constructional constraints in the evolution of primary processing neuropils.
Matthes Kenning; Vanessa Schendel; Carsten H. G. Müller; Andy Sombke. Comparative morphology of ultimate and walking legs in the centipede Lithobius forficatus (Myriapoda) with functional implications. Zoological Letters 2019, 5, 1 -18.
AMA StyleMatthes Kenning, Vanessa Schendel, Carsten H. G. Müller, Andy Sombke. Comparative morphology of ultimate and walking legs in the centipede Lithobius forficatus (Myriapoda) with functional implications. Zoological Letters. 2019; 5 (1):1-18.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatthes Kenning; Vanessa Schendel; Carsten H. G. Müller; Andy Sombke. 2019. "Comparative morphology of ultimate and walking legs in the centipede Lithobius forficatus (Myriapoda) with functional implications." Zoological Letters 5, no. 1: 1-18.
The anatomy of the female genitalia sets the arena for sperm competition in species in which females mate multiply and store sperm. In spiders, females possess cuticular internal structures that have evolved into diverse sperm storage sites. Here, we investigate the female genital morphology of seven eresid spider species. We used X-ray micro-computed tomography for 3D reconstruction of the anatomy of the female genital system in the social Stegodyphus dumicola, S. mimosarum and S. sarasinorum, and the subsocial S lineatus, S. pacificus, S. tentoriicola as well as Eresus sandaliatus. We used histology to assess the sites of sperm storage in two selected species S. lineatus and S. dumicola. Our results show that the internal genitalia of the Stegodyphus species consist of two bilateral folds instead of closed ducts as often reported for entelegyne spiders. Along each fold, three regions are discriminable that differ in their specific morphology but are all surrounded by glandular tissue. Between species, the regions differ in shape and dimension. In virgin females, the lumina of all regions are filled with secretion. In mated females, spermatozoa were found in all three regions; however, only those sperm that are stored in the posterior region seem to become activated. Sperm found in anterior regions are embedded in a substance that might act as a mating plug. Our data suggest that the regions of the female genital tract differ in accessibility by the male as well as in their potential use for ejection and manipulation of sperm by the female.
Vanessa Schendel; Anja Junghanns; Trine Bilde; Gabriele Uhl. Comparative female genital morphology in Stegodyphus spiders (Araneae: Eresidae). Zoologischer Anzeiger 2018, 273, 240 -249.
AMA StyleVanessa Schendel, Anja Junghanns, Trine Bilde, Gabriele Uhl. Comparative female genital morphology in Stegodyphus spiders (Araneae: Eresidae). Zoologischer Anzeiger. 2018; 273 ():240-249.
Chicago/Turabian StyleVanessa Schendel; Anja Junghanns; Trine Bilde; Gabriele Uhl. 2018. "Comparative female genital morphology in Stegodyphus spiders (Araneae: Eresidae)." Zoologischer Anzeiger 273, no. : 240-249.
. Agricultural ecosystems have faced dramatic changes during past decades, resulting in a dramatic loss of farmland biodiversity. The Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra is considered a suitable indicator for the conservation value of farmland habitats, and has recently suffered strong declines throughout much of its European range. As a basis for targeted conservation measures, we investigated the habitat preferences of this species in north-eastern Germany by comparing the composition of male territories with randomly chosen control sites. A territory was defined as the area within a radius of 150 meters around the assumed centre of the territory, as the majority of nests is found within this radius. To assess food availability for nestlings, arthropod abundance within the most abundant land use types i.e. crop fields, fallows, grassland as well as within unploughed strips was investigated. In total we found 102 male Corn Bunting territories, which were mainly composed of crop fields (50%), grassland (28%), and fallows (12%). Territories compared with control sites were characterized by a lower proportion of crop fields, a higher proportion of fallows, more diverse land use types, more abundant field boundaries, unploughed strips, and tracks, and a higher availability of song posts. However, neither the number of larger (≥ 1 cm), smaller (< 1 cm) or all arthropods differed significantly among analysed land use types i.e. crop fields, fallows, grassland, unploughed strips. Our study confirms the significance of habitat heterogeneity and especially of sites with sparse vegetation (fallows > 10%) and song posts (> 70 m ‘linear song posts’ or > 1 solitary post per ha) for the habitat selection of male Corn Buntings. We conclude that measures to halt population declines of Corn Buntings seem to be relatively easy to implement, provided that farmers are granted a fair compensation.
Andrea Altewischer; Ulrike Buschewski; Christian Ehrke; Johannes Fröhlich; Antje Gärtner; Peter Giese; Franziska Günter; Nadja Heitmann; Maren Hestermann; Hannes Hoffmann; Friederike Kleinschmidt; Björn Kniepkamp; Wilhelm Linke; Tore Mayland-Quellhorst; Jonas Pape; Tom Peterson; Vanessa Schendel; Sarah Schwieger; Andrea Wadenstorfer; Klaus Fischer. Habitat Preferences of Male Corn Buntings Emberiza calandra in North-Eastern Germany. Acta Ornithologica 2015, 50, 1 -10.
AMA StyleAndrea Altewischer, Ulrike Buschewski, Christian Ehrke, Johannes Fröhlich, Antje Gärtner, Peter Giese, Franziska Günter, Nadja Heitmann, Maren Hestermann, Hannes Hoffmann, Friederike Kleinschmidt, Björn Kniepkamp, Wilhelm Linke, Tore Mayland-Quellhorst, Jonas Pape, Tom Peterson, Vanessa Schendel, Sarah Schwieger, Andrea Wadenstorfer, Klaus Fischer. Habitat Preferences of Male Corn Buntings Emberiza calandra in North-Eastern Germany. Acta Ornithologica. 2015; 50 (1):1-10.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAndrea Altewischer; Ulrike Buschewski; Christian Ehrke; Johannes Fröhlich; Antje Gärtner; Peter Giese; Franziska Günter; Nadja Heitmann; Maren Hestermann; Hannes Hoffmann; Friederike Kleinschmidt; Björn Kniepkamp; Wilhelm Linke; Tore Mayland-Quellhorst; Jonas Pape; Tom Peterson; Vanessa Schendel; Sarah Schwieger; Andrea Wadenstorfer; Klaus Fischer. 2015. "Habitat Preferences of Male Corn Buntings Emberiza calandra in North-Eastern Germany." Acta Ornithologica 50, no. 1: 1-10.