Conotoxins are the peptidic components of the venoms of marine cone snails (genus Conus). They are remarkably diverse in terms of structure and function. Unique potency and selectivity profiles for a range of neuronal targets have made several conotoxins valuable as research tools, drug leads and even therapeutics, and has resulted in a concerted and increasing drive to identify and characterise new conotoxins. Conotoxins are translated from mRNA as peptide precursors, and cDNA sequencing is now the primary method for identification of new conotoxin sequences. As a result, gene superfamily, a classification based on precursor signal peptide identity, has become the most convenient method of conotoxin classification. Here we review each of the described conotoxin gene superfamilies, with a focus on the structural and functional diversity present in each. This review is intended to serve as a practical guide to conotoxin superfamilies and to facilitate interpretation of the increasing number of conotoxin precursor sequences being identified by targeted-cDNA sequencing and more recently high-throughput transcriptome sequencing.

Significance: The discovery and characterization of insulin, a key hormone of energy metabolism, provided a life-saving drug for diabetics. We show that insulin can be subverted for nefarious biological purposes: Venomous cone snails use specialized insulins to elicit hypoglycemic shock, facilitating capture of their fish prey. This finding extends our understanding of the chemical and functional diversity of venom components, such that the snail’s arsenal includes a diverse set of neurotoxins that alters neuronal circuitry, as well as components that override glucose homeostasis. The highly expressed venom insulins are distinct from molluscan insulins and exhibit remarkable similarity to fish insulins. They are the smallest of all insulins characterized from any source, potentially providing new insights into structure-function elements of insulin action.

From offense to defense: Venom in snakes is largely used to subdue and/or kill prey, and most venoms have clear actions that facilitate death or paralysis. In one group of snakes, however, venom has evolved and shifted from predation to protection. Specifically, in three different lineages of “spitting” snakes, venom is used to deter predators. Kazandjian et al. show that similar adaptions have occurred within these lineages that transform cytotoxic components into a mixture that acts on mammalian sensory neurons and causes pain. The authors argue that increased predation on these lineages led to similar shifts in venom function. Science , this issue p. 386

Animal venoms represent a vast library of bioactive peptides and proteins with proven potential, not only as research tools but also as drug leads and therapeutics. This is illustrated clearly by marine cone snails (genus Conus), whose venoms consist of mixtures of hundreds of peptides (conotoxins) with a diverse array of molecular targets, including voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors and neurotransmitter transporters. Several conotoxins have found applications as research tools, with some being used or developed as therapeutics. The primary objective of this study was the large-scale discovery of conotoxin sequences from the venom gland of an Australian cone snail species, Conus victoriae. Using cDNA library normalization, high-throughput 454 sequencing, de novo transcriptome assembly and annotation with BLASTX and profile hidden Markov models, we discovered over 100 unique conotoxin sequences from 20 gene superfamilies, the highest diversity of conotoxins so far reported in a single study. Many of the sequences identified are new members of known conotoxin superfamilies, some help to redefine these superfamilies and others represent altogether new classes of conotoxins. In addition, we have demonstrated an efficient combination of methods to mine an animal venom gland and generate a library of sequences encoding bioactive peptides.

Introduction: Animal venoms are complex chemical arsenals. Most venoms are rich in bioactive peptides with proven potential as research tools, drug leads and drugs. Areas covered: We review recent advances in venom-peptide discovery, particularly the adoption of combined transcriptomic/proteomic approaches for the exploration of venom composition. Expert commentary: Advances in transcriptomics and proteomics have dramatically altered the manner and rate of venom-peptide discovery. The increasing trend towards a toxin-driven approach, as opposed to traditional target-based screening of venoms, is likely to expedite the discovery of venom-peptides with novel structures and new and unanticipated mechanisms of action. At the same time, these advances will drive the development of higher-throughput approaches for target identification. Taken together, these approaches should enhance our understanding of the natural ecological function of venom peptides and increase the rate of identification of novel venom-derived pharmacological tools, drug leads and drugs.