Scheduled charging offers the potential for electric vehicles (EVs) to use renewable energy more efficiently, lowering costs and improving the stability of the electricity grid. Many studies related to EV charge scheduling found in the literature assume perfect or highly accurate knowledge of energy demand for EVs expected to arrive after the scheduling is performed. However, in practice, there is always a degree of uncertainty related to future EV charging demands. In this work, a Model Predictive Control (MPC) based smart charging strategy is developed, which takes this uncertainty into account, both in terms of the timing of the EV arrival as well as the magnitude of energy demand. The objective of the strategy is to reduce the peak electricity demand at an EV parking lot with PVarrays. The developed strategy is compared with both conventional EV charging as well as smart charging with an assumption of perfect knowledge of uncertain future events. The comparison reveals that the inclusion of a 24 h forecast of EV demand has a considerable effect on the improvement of the performance of the system. Further, strategies that are able to robustly consider uncertainty across many possible forecasts can reduce the peak electricity demand by as much as 39% at an office parking space. The reduction of peak electricity demand can lead to increased flexibility for system design, planning for EV charging facilities, deferral or avoidance of the upgrade of grid capacity as well as its better utilization.

The carrying capacity of the planet is being exceeded, and there is an urgent need to bring forward revolutionary approaches, particularly in terms of energy supply, carbon emissions and nitrogen inputs into the biosphere. Hydrogen gas, generated by means of renewable energy through water electrolysis, can be a platform molecule to drive the future bioeconomy and electrification in the 21st century. The potential to use hydrogen gas in microbial metabolic processes is highly versatile, and this opens a broad range of opportunities for novel biotechnological developments and applications. A first approach concerns the central role of hydrogen gas in the production of bio-based building block chemicals using the methane route, thus, bypassing the inherent low economic value of methane towards higher-value products. Second, hydrogen gas can serve as a key carbon-neutral source to produce third-generation proteins, i.e. microbial protein for food applications, whilst simultaneously enabling carbon capture and nutrient recovery, directly at their point of emission. Combining both approaches to deal with the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources maximises the ability for efficient use of renewable resources.

Renewable, reliable, and affordable future power, heat, and transportation systems require efficient and versatile energy storage and distribution systems. If solar and wind electricity are the only renewable energy sources, what role can hydrogen and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have in providing year-round 100% renewable, reliable, and affordable energy for power, heat, and transportation for smart urban areas in European climates? The designed system for smart urban areas uses hydrogen production and FCEVs through vehicle-to-grid (FCEV2G) for balancing electricity demand and supply. A techno-economic analysis was done for two technology development scenarios and two different European climates. Electricity and hydrogen supply is fully renewable and guaranteed at all times. Combining the output of thousands of grid-connected FCEVs results in large overcapacities being able to balance large deficits. Self-driving, connecting, and free-floating car-sharing fleets could facilitate vehicle scheduling. Extreme peaks in balancing never exceed more than 50% of the available FCEV2G capacity. A simple comparison shows that the cost of energy for an average household in the Mid Century scenario is affordable: 520–770 €/year (without taxes and levies), which is 65% less compared to the present fossil situation. The system levelized costs in the Mid Century scenario are 71–104 €/MWh for electricity and 2.6–3.0 €/kg for hydrogen—and we expect that further cost reductions are possible.

This chapter describes a European energy system based on 50% renewable electricity and 50% green hydrogen, which can be achieved by 2050. The green hydrogen shall consist of hydrogen produced in Europe, complemented by hydrogen imports, especially from North Africa. Hydrogen import from North Africa will be beneficial for both Europe and North Africa. A bold energy sector strategy with an important infrastructure component is suggested, which differs from more traditional bottom-up sectoral strategies. This approach guarantees optimized use of (existing) infrastructure, has low risk and cost, improves Europe’s energy security and supports European technology leadership. In North Africa it would foster economic development, boost export, create future-oriented jobs in a high-tech sector and support social stability.