Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are considered common and can affect the food chain at various stages of production, harvesting, storage and processing. Zearalenone is one of over 400 detected mycotoxins and produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium; it mainly has estrogenic effects on various organisms. Contaminated products can lead to huge economic losses and pose risks to animals and humans. In this review, we systemize information on zearalenone and its major metabolites.

Plants and medicinal herbs that are available on the market do not always meet quality and safety standards. One particular concern is the risk of contamination with mycotoxins. Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are the most frequently described mycotoxins in herbal products and have repeatedly been reported to occur at concentrations which exceed regulatory levels set by the European Union (EU). Possible solutions include enforcing existing limits, and for the new materials, establishing tighter limits and mandate the growth of medicinal plants in EU member countries under more strict conditions.

Breast milk is an optimal food for infants and toddlers. The composition of breast milk adapts to the needs of the developing organism, satisfying nutritional needs at an early stage of growth and development. The results of research to date have shown that breast milk is the best food for a child, containing not only nutrients but also biologically active substances that aid in the optimal, proper growth and development of infants. Among the many components of breast milk, an important element is the probiotic microflora, including bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus spp. These organisms exert a multidirectional, health-promoting effect on the body of children who consume breast milk. The number of lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus, colonizing the breast milk environment and their species diversity varies and depends on many factors, both maternal and environmental. Breast milk, as a recommended food for infants, is an important source of probiotic microflora. The aim of this study was to present the current understanding of probiotic bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus present in breast milk.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds and mainly produced by species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. They can be synthesized on the field, during harvest as well as during storage. They are fairly stable compounds and difficult to remove. Among several hundreds of mycotoxins, according to the WHO, ochratoxin A, aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, patulin, fumonisins as well as T-2 and HT-2 toxins deserve special attention. Cytotoxicity is one of the most important adverse properties of mycotoxins and is generally assessed via the MTT assay, the neutral red assay, the LDH assay, the CCK-8 assay and the ATP test in different cell lines. The apoptotic cell ratio is mainly assessed via flow cytometry. Aside from the assessment of the toxicity of individual mycotoxins, it is important to determine the cytotoxicity of mycotoxin combinations. Such combinations often exhibit stronger cytotoxicity than individual mycotoxins. The cytotoxicity of different mycotoxins often depends on the cell line used in the experiment and is frequently time- and dose-dependent. A major drawback of assessing mycotoxin cytotoxicity in cell lines is the lack of interaction typical for complex organisms (for example, immune responses).

The aim of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of feeding grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on morphometric indices of jejunum and to follow the passage of deoxynivalenol (DON) through subsequent segments of the digestive tract of broilers. A total of 45 1-d-old broiler chickens (Ross 308 males) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments (15 birds/treatment): (1) control diet; (2) diet contaminated with 1 mg DON/kg feed; (3) diet contaminated with 5 mg DON/kg feed for five weeks. None of the zootechnical traits (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion) responded to increased DON levels in the diet. However, DON at both dietary levels (1 mg and 5 mg DON/kg feed) significantly altered the small intestinal morphology. In the jejunum, the villi were significantly (P < 0.01) shorter in both DON treated groups compared with the controls. Furthermore, the dietary inclusion of DON decreased (P < 0.05) the villus surface area in both DON treated groups. The absolute or relative organ weights (liver, heart, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, spleen, pancreas, colon, cecum, bursa of Fabricius and thymus) were not altered (P > 0.05) in broilers fed the diet containing DON compared with controls. DON and de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1) were analyzed in serum, bile, liver, feces and digesta from consecutive segments of the digestive tract (gizzard, cecum, and rectum). Concentrations of DON and its metabolite DOM-1 in serum, bile, and liver were lower than the detection limits of the applied liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Only about 10 to 12% and 6% of the ingested DON was recovered in gizzard and feces, irrespective of the dietary DON-concentration. However, the DON recovery in the cecum as percentage of DON-intake varied between 18 to 22% and was not influenced by dietary DON-concentration. Interestingly, in the present trial, DOM-1 did not appear in the large intestine and in feces. The results indicate that deepoxydation in the present study hardly occurred in the distal segments of the digestive tract, assuming that the complete de-epoxydation occurs in the proximal small intestine where the majority of the parent toxin is absorbed. In conclusion, diets with DON contamination below levels that induce a negative impact on performance could alter small intestinal morphology in broilers. Additionally, the results confirm that the majority of the ingested DON quickly disappears through the gastrointestinal tract.