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Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) are among the leading causes of food intoxications, affecting consumer health even in nanogram (ng) amounts. In the European Union, certain food safety criteria are specified, including the absence of SEs in cheeses, milk powder, and whey powder. Until 2019, the analytical reference method used was the European Screening Method, which was replaced by EN ISO 19020. For the official laboratories involved in food control, the German Reference Laboratory for coagulase-positive staphylococci including Staphylococcus aureus organized three interlaboratory proficiency tests (ILPTs) to detect SE type A in food during the years 2013–2018. The selected food products (cream cheese, vanilla pudding) were successfully tested beforehand with regard to easy handling, homogeneity, and stability of the added toxin. In 2013, ILPT participants overall were not competent in detecting SE type A in food. Identified factors to improve performance comprised: i) concentration of sample extract using dialysis, ii) selection of a sensitive detection kit, and iii) proper sample handling. By taking these factors into account and instructing and training the laboratories, their competence greatly improved. In 2018, all performance criteria (specificity, sensitivity, accuracy) were >90%, even at very low concentrations of SE type A of approximately 0.01 ng g–1 food.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Daniel Leeser-Boek; Katja Drache; Yacine Nia; Gladys Krause; Alexandra Fetsch. Interlaboratory proficiency tests for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A in food. Letters in Applied Microbiology 2021, 1 .
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Daniel Leeser-Boek, Katja Drache, Yacine Nia, Gladys Krause, Alexandra Fetsch. Interlaboratory proficiency tests for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A in food. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2021; ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Daniel Leeser-Boek; Katja Drache; Yacine Nia; Gladys Krause; Alexandra Fetsch. 2021. "Interlaboratory proficiency tests for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A in food." Letters in Applied Microbiology , no. : 1.
Milk is a highly valuable food for a balanced nutrition and contributes to food security in Sub-Saharan African countries like Zambia. The traditional dairy value chain accounts for a large share of Zambia's total milk supply. Comprehensive surveys yielding in around 400 filled-in questionnaires were carried out among traditional/smallholder farmers, milk collection centres (MCCs), informal traders, but also supermarkets/shops, and consumers in three Zambian provinces (Lusaka, Southern, Western). Using individual surveys for each stakeholder group, data were collected on general information and management practices, cattle disease management, hygienic measures, milk-handling practices, milk quality checks and backtracing, food safety knowledge, and milk consumption. The study provides insights into the traditional dairy chain and differences between the study provinces. For example, smallholder farms with high-yielding cattle breeds were dominating in the Lusaka Province, and here the MCCs received relatively large amounts of milk. In contrast, the surveyed farms in the Southern and Western Provinces were dominated by traditional cattle breeds, and the MCCs in the Western Province were the smallest. Distances for milk transport by farmers were largest in the Western Province, and here transport by foot was still common. Unrefrigerated storage and transport that favour proliferation of zoonotic agents in raw milk were frequently observed. Moreover, the survey uncovered hygiene deficiencies, particularly on farm level, for traders, and for consumers, which may further cause microbial contamination. Consumption of raw milk and products thereof was frequently identified and poses a health risk. Knowledge about food hygiene and safety needs to be improved along the Zambian dairy value chain.
Bruno S.J. Phiri; Mushekwa Sakumona; Bernard M. Hang'Ombe; Alexandra Fetsch; Sara Schaarschmidt. The traditional dairy value chain in Zambia and potential risk factors to microbiological food safety. Food Control 2021, 124, 107885 .
AMA StyleBruno S.J. Phiri, Mushekwa Sakumona, Bernard M. Hang'Ombe, Alexandra Fetsch, Sara Schaarschmidt. The traditional dairy value chain in Zambia and potential risk factors to microbiological food safety. Food Control. 2021; 124 ():107885.
Chicago/Turabian StyleBruno S.J. Phiri; Mushekwa Sakumona; Bernard M. Hang'Ombe; Alexandra Fetsch; Sara Schaarschmidt. 2021. "The traditional dairy value chain in Zambia and potential risk factors to microbiological food safety." Food Control 124, no. : 107885.
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize‐based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl‐Hassek. The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2020, 20, 91 -148.
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Carsten Fauhl‐Hassek. The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2020; 20 (1):91-148.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl‐Hassek. 2020. "The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20, no. 1: 91-148.
Mycotoxins are widespread natural toxins with diverse toxicological impacts, produced in crops like cereals in the field and/or post-harvest. Most common mycotoxins that occur at relatively high levels in maize are fumonisins, zearalenone, and aflatoxins. In addition, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol are also frequently present in maize. Primary processing, such as cleaning and milling of grain can cause a redistribution of mycotoxins by fractionation. The current article comprehensively reviews the effect of cleaning, dry-milling, and wet-milling operations on mycotoxin concentrations in maize products. In doing so, industrial and traditional processing procedures were considered. Furthermore, the observed changes are set in relation to regulatory requirements in the European Union (EU) regarding mycotoxins in foodstuffs. In the EU, maximum levels are defined for unprocessed maize (uncleaned or cleaned), maize milling fractions intended for further processing, and final maize-based foodstuffs. The EU maximum levels address aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins B1 and B2, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Besides these regulated mycotoxins, the review also summarizes available data on other mycotoxins (e.g., nivalenol, T-2 toxin, and HT-2 toxin), including modified forms (i.e., hydrolysed fumonisin B1 and acetyl-deoxynivalenol) and matrix-associated toxins (fumonisins). The effect of processing generally depends on several factors, which becomes particularly obvious in case of cleaning. During dry milling, the extent of reduction further relies, at least for Fusarium toxins, on the particle size. For flour, conformity with EU maximum levels may not always be given when applying good practices. Commercial wet milling shows a very high efficiency in lowering mycotoxin levels in starch.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. The fate of mycotoxins during the primary food processing of maize. Food Control 2020, 121, 107651 .
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. The fate of mycotoxins during the primary food processing of maize. Food Control. 2020; 121 ():107651.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. 2020. "The fate of mycotoxins during the primary food processing of maize." Food Control 121, no. : 107651.
Tortillas are a traditional staple food in Mesoamerican cuisine, which have also become popular on a global level, e.g., for wraps or as snacks (tortilla chips). Traditional tortilla production includes alkaline cooking (nixtamalization) of maize kernels. This article summarizes the current knowledge on mycotoxin changes during the nixtamalization of maize and tortilla production. Upon nixtamalization, mycotoxins can be affected in different ways. On the one hand, the toxins can be physically removed during steeping and washing. On the other hand, mycotoxins might be degraded, modified, or released/bound in the matrix by high pH and/or high temperature. This also applies to the subsequent baking of tortillas. Many studies have shown reduced mycotoxin levels in alkali-cooked maize and in tortillas. Most of the available data relate to aflatoxins and fumonisins. The reduction (and detoxification) of aflatoxins during nixtamalization might, however, be partially reversed in acidic conditions. The loss of fumonisin concentrations is to some extent accompanied by hydrolyzation and by lower toxicity. However, some studies have indicated the potential formation of toxicologically relevant modified forms and matrix-associated fumonisins. More data are required to assess the influence of alkaline cooking regarding such modified forms, as well as mycotoxins other than aflatoxins/fumonisins.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. Mycotoxins during the Processes of Nixtamalization and Tortilla Production. Toxins 2019, 11, 227 .
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. Mycotoxins during the Processes of Nixtamalization and Tortilla Production. Toxins. 2019; 11 (4):227.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. 2019. "Mycotoxins during the Processes of Nixtamalization and Tortilla Production." Toxins 11, no. 4: 227.
Mycotoxins are a potential health threat in cereals including wheat. In the European Union (EU), mycotoxin maximum levels are laid down for cereal raw materials and final food products. For wheat and wheat-based products, the EU maximum levels apply to deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone, aflatoxins, and ochratoxin A. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins and their legal limits and on how processing of wheat can affect such contaminants, from raw material to highly processed final products, based on relevant scientific studies published in the literature. The potential compliance with EU maximum levels is discussed. Of the four mycotoxins regulated in wheat-based foods in the EU, most data are available for DON, whereas aflatoxins were rarely studied in the processing of wheat. Furthermore, available data on the effect of processing are outlined for mycotoxins not regulated by EU law—including modified and emerging mycotoxins—and which cover DON derivatives (DON-3-glucoside, mono-acetyl-DONs, norDONs, deepoxy-DON), nivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, and fumonisins. The processing steps addressed in this review cover primary processing (premilling and milling operations) and secondary processing procedures (such as fermentation and thermal treatments). A special focus is on the production of baked goods, and processing factors for DON in wheat bread production were estimated. For wheat milling products derived from the endosperm and for white bread, compliance with legal requirements seems to be mostly achievable when applying good practices. In the case of wholemeal products, bran-enriched products, or high-cereal low-moisture bakery products, this appears to be challenging and improved technology and/or selection of high-quality raw materials would be required.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2018, 17, 556 -593.
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2018; 17 (3):556-593.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Carsten Fauhl-Hassek. 2018. "The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 17, no. 3: 556-593.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Franziska Spradau; Helmut Mank; Petra Hiller; Bernd Appel; Juliane Bräunig; Heidi Wichmann-Schauer; Anneluise Mader. Reporting of traceability and food safety data in the culinary herb and spice chains. Food Control 2018, 83, 18 -27.
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Franziska Spradau, Helmut Mank, Petra Hiller, Bernd Appel, Juliane Bräunig, Heidi Wichmann-Schauer, Anneluise Mader. Reporting of traceability and food safety data in the culinary herb and spice chains. Food Control. 2018; 83 ():18-27.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Franziska Spradau; Helmut Mank; Petra Hiller; Bernd Appel; Juliane Bräunig; Heidi Wichmann-Schauer; Anneluise Mader. 2018. "Reporting of traceability and food safety data in the culinary herb and spice chains." Food Control 83, no. : 18-27.
Dried spices and culinary herbs are vulnerable products, which are used for their aroma (and colour). They are important ingredients in many processed foods, e.g. meat products, dairy products, and bakery products, and in most of our dishes. Food processors and consumers have high expectations regarding the organoleptic quality of culinary herbs and spices. Moreover, although used at relatively low amounts, herbs and spices can represent a health threat to the consumer, e.g. when contaminated with mycotoxins or adulterated with harmful colourants. The current review provides an overview from a European perspective on product standards covering (i) general physical and chemical specifications important for product quality and (ii) chemical characteristics concerning the safety of culinary herbs and spices. Focus is given to standards addressing dried culinary herbs and spices on global and European Union (EU) level. At some points, additional information on fresh herbs and on some national standards of non-EU member states is provided. General specifications for individual herbs and spices based on international agreements are developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and are currently under development by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Besides global standards, the review outlines product specifications for dried culinary herbs and spices that are defined by national bodies and industry associations. To reduce potential chemical hazards, specific maximum and action levels are laid down for culinary herbs and spices. In EU law, these address besides residues of pesticides certain mycotoxins, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and additives as described in the following.
Sara Schaarschmidt. Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety. Food Control 2016, 70, 339 -349.
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt. Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety. Food Control. 2016; 70 ():339-349.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt. 2016. "Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety." Food Control 70, no. : 339-349.
Highlights•Spices/dried herbs can have important impact on the microbiological safety of foods.•Specific production and product standards address the safety of spices/herbs.•Spice/herb businesses (must) usually apply private standards.•Spice/herb businesses test microbiological parameters often on a routine basis. AbstractDried culinary herbs and spices (DCHS) are minor food components with widespread use. Despite their low water activity, some microorganisms—including pathogenic and toxigenic ones—can survive in DCHS. The addition of microbial contaminated DCHS to ready-to-eat food in combination with improper food storage can pose a serious health risk for the consumer. In the past, several food-borne disease outbreaks were related to microbial contaminated spices. The aim of this study was to provide an overview on (i) spice/herb production standards important for promoting food safety by preventing microbial contaminations, (ii) public and private standards providing microbiological criteria to assess the microbiological safety of DCHS, and (iii) product testing performed by DCHS producing/processing businesses to comply with these standards.For that, a literature search and a survey among herb/spice businesses were conducted. Several good practices and production guidelines specific for the primary production and/or processing of culinary herbs and spices were found. Microbiological criteria specific for DCHS are usually rare, but some national standards (mostly of non-EU member states) as well as recommendations by private bodies could be identified. By EU law, no mandatory microbiological criteria specific for DCHS are laid down. The survey indicated a frequent application of business-to-business agreements. The microbiological quality of DCHS was tested by the survey participants mainly in a routine manner by checking every lot or based on buyer–seller agreements. Risk-based testing was less common, which differed to chemical safety testing. Upon import into the EU, testing appeared to be performed predominantly in a routine manner for the pathogenic bacteria Salmonella spp., sulphite-reducing clostridia (including Clostridium perfringens), Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Sara Schaarschmidt; Franziska Spradau; Helmut Mank; Jennifer L. Banach; H.J. Van Der Fels-Klerx; Petra Hiller; Bernd Appel; Juliane Bräunig; Heidi Wichmann-Schauer; Anneluise Mader. Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part II: Production and product standards for ensuring microbiological safety. Food Control 2016, 70, 360 -370.
AMA StyleSara Schaarschmidt, Franziska Spradau, Helmut Mank, Jennifer L. Banach, H.J. Van Der Fels-Klerx, Petra Hiller, Bernd Appel, Juliane Bräunig, Heidi Wichmann-Schauer, Anneluise Mader. Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part II: Production and product standards for ensuring microbiological safety. Food Control. 2016; 70 ():360-370.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSara Schaarschmidt; Franziska Spradau; Helmut Mank; Jennifer L. Banach; H.J. Van Der Fels-Klerx; Petra Hiller; Bernd Appel; Juliane Bräunig; Heidi Wichmann-Schauer; Anneluise Mader. 2016. "Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part II: Production and product standards for ensuring microbiological safety." Food Control 70, no. : 360-370.