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Organic agriculture is widely accepted as a strategy to reduce the environmental impacts of food production and help achieve global climate and biodiversity targets. However, studies concluding that organic farming could satisfy global food demand have overlooked the key role that nitrogen plays in sustaining crop yields. Using a spatially explicit biophysical optimization model that accounts for crop growth nitrogen requirements, we show that, in the absence of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, the production gap between organic and conventional agriculture increases as organic agriculture expands globally (with organic producing 36% less food for human consumption than conventional in a fully organic world). Yet, by targeting both food supply (via a redesign of the livestock sector) and demand (by reducing average per capita caloric intake), public policies could support a transition towards organic agriculture in 40–60% of the global agricultural area even under current nitrogen limitations thus helping to achieve important environmental and health benefits. The ability of organic agriculture to feed the world population remains contentious. A biophysical optimization model indicates the extent to which nitrogen availability could limit the expansion of organic production systems and what measures could alleviate this limitation.
Pietro Barbieri; Sylvain Pellerin; Verena Seufert; Laurence Smith; Navin Ramankutty; Thomas Nesme. Global option space for organic agriculture is delimited by nitrogen availability. Nature Food 2021, 2, 363 -372.
AMA StylePietro Barbieri, Sylvain Pellerin, Verena Seufert, Laurence Smith, Navin Ramankutty, Thomas Nesme. Global option space for organic agriculture is delimited by nitrogen availability. Nature Food. 2021; 2 (5):363-372.
Chicago/Turabian StylePietro Barbieri; Sylvain Pellerin; Verena Seufert; Laurence Smith; Navin Ramankutty; Thomas Nesme. 2021. "Global option space for organic agriculture is delimited by nitrogen availability." Nature Food 2, no. 5: 363-372.
Agroforestry systems have multifunctional roles in enhancing agronomic productivity, co-production of diversity of food and non-food products and provision of ecosystem services. The knowledge of the performance of agroforestry systems compared with monoculture is scarce and scattered. Hence, the objective of the study was to analyze the agronomic productivity and economic viability of diverse agroforestry systems in Europe. A network of five agroforestry systems integrating arable crops, livestock and biomass trees was investigated to assess the range of agricultural products in each agroforestry system. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was used to measure the agronomic productivity, whereas gross margin was used as an indicator for economic viability assessment. LER values ranged from 1.36–2.00, indicating that agroforestry systems were more productive by 36–100% compared to monocultures. Agroforestry gross margin was lower in Denmark (€112 ha−1 year−1) compared to United Kingdom (€5083 ha−1 year−1) and the crop component yielded higher returns compared to negative returns from the tree component in agroforestry. Hence, the study provided robust field-based evidence on agronomic productivity and economic viability assessment of agroforestry systems in diverse contexts for informed decision making by land managers, advisory services, farmers and policymakers.
Lisa Lehmann; Jo Smith; Sally Westaway; Andrea Pisanelli; Giuseppe Russo; Robert Borek; Mignon Sandor; Adrian Gliga; Laurence Smith; Bhim Ghaley. Productivity and Economic Evaluation of Agroforestry Systems for Sustainable Production of Food and Non-Food Products. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5429 .
AMA StyleLisa Lehmann, Jo Smith, Sally Westaway, Andrea Pisanelli, Giuseppe Russo, Robert Borek, Mignon Sandor, Adrian Gliga, Laurence Smith, Bhim Ghaley. Productivity and Economic Evaluation of Agroforestry Systems for Sustainable Production of Food and Non-Food Products. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (13):5429.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLisa Lehmann; Jo Smith; Sally Westaway; Andrea Pisanelli; Giuseppe Russo; Robert Borek; Mignon Sandor; Adrian Gliga; Laurence Smith; Bhim Ghaley. 2020. "Productivity and Economic Evaluation of Agroforestry Systems for Sustainable Production of Food and Non-Food Products." Sustainability 12, no. 13: 5429.
European sheep and goat farming faces diverse challenges at global or local scales and constitutes an important sector for many countries, playing important sociocultural, economic and environmental roles. A closer examination of the overall sustainability of the sector is necessary to assess the performance of different farm types in various geographical settings. This comparative study evaluates the use of a common sustainability assessment (SA) tool for the major European countries in the sheep and goat sector. In particular, the study reports the results of a SA using the Public Goods (PG) Tool, adapted within the Innovation for Sustainable Sheep and Goat Production in Europe (iSAGE) Horizon 2020 project, which includes questions accounting for 13 dimensions of a sheep and goat farm sustainability. In total, 206 farmers from Greece, Italy, Spain, Finland, United Kingdom, France and Turkey were interviewed, all of which were typical of specific types of a pan-European sheep and goat farm typologies elaborated within iSAGE. The study resulted in composite indicators of performance in each dimension for each country. Finland, Italy and the United Kingdom performed better than other countries, while Turkey and Greece performed below average in most categories. The results highlight challenges for each country but also at the European level, the latter mainly relating to generational renewal and an unwillingness to invest in the adoption of a more sustainable approach with long-term results.
Christina Paraskevopoulou; Alexandros Theodoridis; Marion Johnson; Athanasios Ragkos; Lisa Arguile; Laurence Smith; Dimitrios Vlachos; Georgios Arsenos. Sustainability Assessment of Goat and Sheep Farms: A Comparison between European Countries. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3099 .
AMA StyleChristina Paraskevopoulou, Alexandros Theodoridis, Marion Johnson, Athanasios Ragkos, Lisa Arguile, Laurence Smith, Dimitrios Vlachos, Georgios Arsenos. Sustainability Assessment of Goat and Sheep Farms: A Comparison between European Countries. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (8):3099.
Chicago/Turabian StyleChristina Paraskevopoulou; Alexandros Theodoridis; Marion Johnson; Athanasios Ragkos; Lisa Arguile; Laurence Smith; Dimitrios Vlachos; Georgios Arsenos. 2020. "Sustainability Assessment of Goat and Sheep Farms: A Comparison between European Countries." Sustainability 12, no. 8: 3099.
Agriculture is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and must feature in efforts to reduce emissions. Organic farming might contribute to this through decreased use of farm inputs and increased soil carbon sequestration, but it might also exacerbate emissions through greater food production elsewhere to make up for lower organic yields. To date there has been no rigorous assessment of this potential at national scales. Here we assess the consequences for net GHG emissions of a 100% shift to organic food production in England and Wales using life-cycle assessment. We predict major shortfalls in production of most agricultural products against a conventional baseline. Direct GHG emissions are reduced with organic farming, but when increased overseas land use to compensate for shortfalls in domestic supply are factored in, net emissions are greater. Enhanced soil carbon sequestration could offset only a small part of the higher overseas emissions.
Laurence G. Smith; Guy J. D. Kirk; Philip J. Jones; Adrian Williams. The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods. Nature Communications 2019, 10, 1 -10.
AMA StyleLaurence G. Smith, Guy J. D. Kirk, Philip J. Jones, Adrian Williams. The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods. Nature Communications. 2019; 10 (1):1-10.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaurence G. Smith; Guy J. D. Kirk; Philip J. Jones; Adrian Williams. 2019. "The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods." Nature Communications 10, no. 1: 1-10.
Estimates of soil carbon changes, biodiversity and ecotoxicity have often been missing from life cycle assessment based studies of organic dairy products, despite evidence that the impacts of organic and conventional management may differ greatly within these areas. The aim of the present work was therefore to investigate the magnitude of including these impact categories within a comprehensive environmental impact assessment of organic and conventional dairy systems differing in basic production conditions. Three basic systems representative of a range of European approaches to dairy production were selected for the analysis, i.e. (i) low-land mixed crop-livestock systems, (ii) lowland grassland-based systems, (iii) and mountainous systems. As in previous publications, this study showed that when assessing climate change, eutrophication and acidification impact organic milk has similar or slightly lower impact than conventional, although land-use is higher under organic management. Including soil carbon changes reduced the global warming potential by 5-18%, mostly in organic systems with a high share of grass in the ration. The impacts of organic milk production on freshwater ecotoxicity, biodiversity and resource depletion were 2, 33 and 20% of the impacts of conventional management, respectively, across the basic systems considered. The study highlights the importance of including biodiversity, ecotoxicity and soil carbon changes in life cycle assessments when comparing organic and conventional agricultural products. Furthermore, the study shows that including more grass in the ration of dairy cows increases soil carbon sequestration and decreases the negative impact on biodiversity.
Marie Trydeman Knudsen; Teodora Dorca-Preda; Sylvestre Njakou Djomo; Nancy Peña; Susanne Padel; Laurence Smith; Werner Zollitsch; Stefan Hörtenhuber; John E. Hermansen. The importance of including soil carbon changes, ecotoxicity and biodiversity impacts in environmental life cycle assessments of organic and conventional milk in Western Europe. Journal of Cleaner Production 2019, 215, 433 -443.
AMA StyleMarie Trydeman Knudsen, Teodora Dorca-Preda, Sylvestre Njakou Djomo, Nancy Peña, Susanne Padel, Laurence Smith, Werner Zollitsch, Stefan Hörtenhuber, John E. Hermansen. The importance of including soil carbon changes, ecotoxicity and biodiversity impacts in environmental life cycle assessments of organic and conventional milk in Western Europe. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019; 215 ():433-443.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarie Trydeman Knudsen; Teodora Dorca-Preda; Sylvestre Njakou Djomo; Nancy Peña; Susanne Padel; Laurence Smith; Werner Zollitsch; Stefan Hörtenhuber; John E. Hermansen. 2019. "The importance of including soil carbon changes, ecotoxicity and biodiversity impacts in environmental life cycle assessments of organic and conventional milk in Western Europe." Journal of Cleaner Production 215, no. : 433-443.
The development of sustainable and productive farming depends on the effective management of the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Despite the importance of these natural processes, their recent separation within intensive, specialized production has led to increased environmental impacts, and loss pathways from both cycles are responsible for agriculture's substantial contribution to global warming. At the same time, growing populations are placing increasing demands on fragile agroecosystems and the effects of climate change are already being witnessed in a range of climatic zones. As a result of such impacts, there is an urgent need to review the way our food is produced to identify areas for greenhouse gas abatement and emission offsetting. This chapter explored some opportunities for improvement, with reference to individual practices and farming systems. Challenges and opportunities for the sector are also discussed from research, farm practice, and regulatory perspectives.
Laurence G. Smith; Nicolas Lampkin. Greener farming: managing carbon and nitrogen cycles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Managing Global Warming 2018, 553 -577.
AMA StyleLaurence G. Smith, Nicolas Lampkin. Greener farming: managing carbon and nitrogen cycles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Managing Global Warming. 2018; ():553-577.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaurence G. Smith; Nicolas Lampkin. 2018. "Greener farming: managing carbon and nitrogen cycles to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture." Managing Global Warming , no. : 553-577.
Sustainable intensification is a process by which agricultural productivity is enhanced whilst also creating environmental and social benefits. We aimed to identify practices likely to deliver sustainable intensification, currently available for UK farms but not yet widely adopted. We compiled a list of 18 farm management practices with the greatest potential to deliver sustainable intensification in the UK, following a well‐developed stepwise methodology for identifying priority solutions, using a group decision‐making technique with key agricultural experts. The list of priority management practices can provide the focal point of efforts to achieve sustainable intensification of agriculture, as the UK develops post‐Brexit agricultural policy, and pursues the second Sustainable Development Goal, which aims to end hunger and promote sustainable agriculture. The practices largely reflect a technological, production‐focused view of sustainable intensification, including for example, precision farming and animal health diagnostics, with less emphasis on the social and environmental aspects of sustainability. However, they do reflect an integrated approach to farming, covering many different aspects, from business organization and planning, to soil and crop management, to landscape and nature conservation. For a subset of 10 of the priority practices, we gathered data on the level of existing uptake in English and Welsh farms through a stratified survey in seven focal regions. We find substantial existing uptake of most of the priority practices, indicating that UK farming is an innovative sector. The data identify two specific practices for which uptake is relatively low, but which some UK farmers find appealing and would consider adopting. These practices are: prediction of pest and disease outbreaks, especially for livestock farms; staff training on environmental issues, especially on arable farms.
Lynn V. Dicks; David C. Rose; Frederic Ang; Stephen Aston; A. Nicholas E. Birch; Nigel Boatman; Elizabeth L. Bowles; David Chadwick; Alex Dinsdale; Sam Durham; John Elliott; Les Firbank; Stephen Humphreys; Phil Jarvis; Dewi Jones; Daniel Kindred; Stuart M. Knight; Michael Lee; Carlo Leifert; Matt Lobley; Kim Matthews; Alice Midmer; Mark Moore; Carol Morris; Simon Mortimer; T. Charles Murray; Keith Norman; Stephen Ramsden; Dave Roberts; Laurence Smith; Richard Soffe; Chris Stoate; Bryony Taylor; David Tinker; Mark Topliff; John Wallace; Prysor Williams; Paul Wilson; Michael Winter; William J. Sutherland. What agricultural practices are most likely to deliver “sustainable intensification” in the UK? Food and Energy Security 2018, 8, e00148 .
AMA StyleLynn V. Dicks, David C. Rose, Frederic Ang, Stephen Aston, A. Nicholas E. Birch, Nigel Boatman, Elizabeth L. Bowles, David Chadwick, Alex Dinsdale, Sam Durham, John Elliott, Les Firbank, Stephen Humphreys, Phil Jarvis, Dewi Jones, Daniel Kindred, Stuart M. Knight, Michael Lee, Carlo Leifert, Matt Lobley, Kim Matthews, Alice Midmer, Mark Moore, Carol Morris, Simon Mortimer, T. Charles Murray, Keith Norman, Stephen Ramsden, Dave Roberts, Laurence Smith, Richard Soffe, Chris Stoate, Bryony Taylor, David Tinker, Mark Topliff, John Wallace, Prysor Williams, Paul Wilson, Michael Winter, William J. Sutherland. What agricultural practices are most likely to deliver “sustainable intensification” in the UK? Food and Energy Security. 2018; 8 (1):e00148.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLynn V. Dicks; David C. Rose; Frederic Ang; Stephen Aston; A. Nicholas E. Birch; Nigel Boatman; Elizabeth L. Bowles; David Chadwick; Alex Dinsdale; Sam Durham; John Elliott; Les Firbank; Stephen Humphreys; Phil Jarvis; Dewi Jones; Daniel Kindred; Stuart M. Knight; Michael Lee; Carlo Leifert; Matt Lobley; Kim Matthews; Alice Midmer; Mark Moore; Carol Morris; Simon Mortimer; T. Charles Murray; Keith Norman; Stephen Ramsden; Dave Roberts; Laurence Smith; Richard Soffe; Chris Stoate; Bryony Taylor; David Tinker; Mark Topliff; John Wallace; Prysor Williams; Paul Wilson; Michael Winter; William J. Sutherland. 2018. "What agricultural practices are most likely to deliver “sustainable intensification” in the UK?" Food and Energy Security 8, no. 1: e00148.
We assess the production impacts of a 100% conversion to organic agriculture in England and Wales using a large-scale linear programming model. The model includes a range of typical farm structures, scaled up across the available land area, with the objective of maximising food production. The effects of soil and rainfall, nitrogen (N) supply/offtake and livestock feed demand are accounted for. Results reveal major reductions in wheat and barley production, whilst the production of minor cereals such as oats and rye increase. Monogastric livestock and milk production also decreased considerably, whilst beef and sheep numbers increased. Vegetable production was generally comparable to that under conventional farming. Minimising the area of fertility building leys and/or improving rates of N fixation increased the food supply from organic agriculture at the national level. The total food output, in terms of metabolisable energy, was 64% of that under conventional farming. This would necessitate substantial increases in food imports, with corresponding expansion of cultivated agricultural land overseas. Significant changes in diet and reductions in food waste would be required to offset the production impacts of a 100% conversion to organic farming.
Laurence G. Smith; Philip J. Jones; Guy J.D. Kirk; Bruce D. Pearce; Adrian. G. Williams. Modelling the production impacts of a widespread conversion to organic agriculture in England and Wales. Land Use Policy 2018, 76, 391 -404.
AMA StyleLaurence G. Smith, Philip J. Jones, Guy J.D. Kirk, Bruce D. Pearce, Adrian. G. Williams. Modelling the production impacts of a widespread conversion to organic agriculture in England and Wales. Land Use Policy. 2018; 76 ():391-404.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaurence G. Smith; Philip J. Jones; Guy J.D. Kirk; Bruce D. Pearce; Adrian. G. Williams. 2018. "Modelling the production impacts of a widespread conversion to organic agriculture in England and Wales." Land Use Policy 76, no. : 391-404.
Agroecological approaches to food production, including organic farming, rely on improved understanding of ecological principles and their application to the management of agroecosystems in order to reduce agrochemical use and improve the environmental impact of the production systems. Agroecological approaches place increased reliance on biological processes such as symbiotic nitrogen fixation, biological control of pests and pathogens, species and habitat diversity, and closer integration of crop and livestock production, to achieve productivity, health, environmental and financial objectives. In most cases they are associated with positive environmental impacts in terms of biodiversity, resource use and emissions, but with potential trade-offs against productivity, particularly where certain inputs are avoided completely, as in the case of organic farming. In such cases, there are also potentially negative impacts on profitability, but these can be mitigated through the use of specialist markets for organic products and through agri-environmental support or payments for ecosystem services. In the longer term, there is potential for both the environmental benefits and productivity of such systems to be enhanced through research, education and knowledge exchange, engaging practitioners directly, with an increased emphasis on ecological innovation alongside the more traditional focus on technological innovation.
Nicolas H. Lampkin; Jo Smith; Laurence G. Smith. Agroecology and Organic Farming as Approaches to Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Chemicals. Issues in Environmental Science and Technology 2016, 94 -113.
AMA StyleNicolas H. Lampkin, Jo Smith, Laurence G. Smith. Agroecology and Organic Farming as Approaches to Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Chemicals. Issues in Environmental Science and Technology. 2016; ():94-113.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolas H. Lampkin; Jo Smith; Laurence G. Smith. 2016. "Agroecology and Organic Farming as Approaches to Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Chemicals." Issues in Environmental Science and Technology , no. : 94-113.
When trying to optimize the sustainability performance of farms and farming systems, a consideration of trade-offs and synergies between different themes and dimensions is required. The aim of this paper is to perform a systematic analysis of trade-offs and synergies across all dimensions and themes. To achieve this aim we used the Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART)-Farm Tool which operationalizes the Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems (SAFA) Guidelines by defining science-based indicator sets and assessment procedures. It identifies the degree of goal achievement with respect to the 58 themes defined in the SAFA Guidelines using an impact matrix that defines 327 indicators and 1769 relations between sustainability themes and indicators. We illustrate how the SMART-Farm Tool can be successfully applied to assess the sustainability performance of farms of different types and in different geographic regions. Our analysis revealed important synergies between themes within a sustainability dimension and across dimensions. We found major trade-offs within the environmental dimension and between the environmental and economic dimension. The trade-offs within the environmental dimension were even larger than the trade-offs with other dimensions. The study also underlines the importance of the governance dimension with regard to achieving a good level of performance in the other dimensions.
Christian Schader; Lukas Baumgart; Jan Landert; Adrian Muller; Brian Ssebunya; Johan Blockeel; Rainer Weisshaidinger; Richard Petrasek; Dóra Mészáros; Susanne Padel; Catherine Gerrard; Laurence Smith; Thomas Lindenthal; Urs Niggli; Matthias Stolze. Using the Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART) for the Systematic Analysis of Trade-Offs and Synergies between Sustainability Dimensions and Themes at Farm Level. Sustainability 2016, 8, 274 .
AMA StyleChristian Schader, Lukas Baumgart, Jan Landert, Adrian Muller, Brian Ssebunya, Johan Blockeel, Rainer Weisshaidinger, Richard Petrasek, Dóra Mészáros, Susanne Padel, Catherine Gerrard, Laurence Smith, Thomas Lindenthal, Urs Niggli, Matthias Stolze. Using the Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART) for the Systematic Analysis of Trade-Offs and Synergies between Sustainability Dimensions and Themes at Farm Level. Sustainability. 2016; 8 (3):274.
Chicago/Turabian StyleChristian Schader; Lukas Baumgart; Jan Landert; Adrian Muller; Brian Ssebunya; Johan Blockeel; Rainer Weisshaidinger; Richard Petrasek; Dóra Mészáros; Susanne Padel; Catherine Gerrard; Laurence Smith; Thomas Lindenthal; Urs Niggli; Matthias Stolze. 2016. "Using the Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART) for the Systematic Analysis of Trade-Offs and Synergies between Sustainability Dimensions and Themes at Farm Level." Sustainability 8, no. 3: 274.
The dynamic model Nitrogen Dynamics in Crop rotations in Ecological Agriculture (NDICEA) was used to assess the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) balance of long-term organic cropping trials and typical organic crop rotations on a range of soil types and rainfall zones in the UK. The measurements of soil N taken at each of the organic trial sites were also used to assess the performance of NDICEA. The modeled outputs compared well to recorded soil N levels, with relatively small error margins. NDICEA therefore seems to be a useful tool for UK organic farmers. The modeling of typical organic rotations has shown that positive N balances can be achieved, although negative N balances can occur under high rainfall conditions and on lighter soil types as a result of leaching. The analysis and modeling also showed that some organic cropping systems rely on imported sources of P and K to maintain an adequate balance and large deficits of both nutrients are apparent in stockless systems. Although the K deficits could be addressed through the buffering capacity of minerals, the amount available for crop uptake will depend on the type and amount of minerals present, current cropping and fertilization practices and the climatic environment. A P deficit represents a more fundamental problem for the maintenance of crop yields and the organic sector currently relies on mined sources of P which represents a fundamental conflict with the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements organic principles.
Laurence G. Smith; Davide Tarsitano; Cairistiona F. E. Topp; Stephanie K. Jones; Catherine L. Gerrard; Bruce D. Pearce; Adrian G. Williams; Christine A. Watson. Predicting the effect of rotation design on N, P, K balances on organic farms using the NDICEA model. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 2015, 31, 471 -484.
AMA StyleLaurence G. Smith, Davide Tarsitano, Cairistiona F. E. Topp, Stephanie K. Jones, Catherine L. Gerrard, Bruce D. Pearce, Adrian G. Williams, Christine A. Watson. Predicting the effect of rotation design on N, P, K balances on organic farms using the NDICEA model. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 2015; 31 (5):471-484.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaurence G. Smith; Davide Tarsitano; Cairistiona F. E. Topp; Stephanie K. Jones; Catherine L. Gerrard; Bruce D. Pearce; Adrian G. Williams; Christine A. Watson. 2015. "Predicting the effect of rotation design on N, P, K balances on organic farms using the NDICEA model." Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 31, no. 5: 471-484.
Dairy farming is the largest agricultural contributor to greenhouse gas emissions in Europe. In this study, the carbon footprint of organic dairying was evaluated by means of a life cycle assessment, based on real farm data from six European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Italy and United Kingdom. A total of 34 farms were analysed. The assessment was carried out using an attributional approach with system boundaries from cradle to farm gate. In relation to dairy production, a functional unit of 1 kg of energy corrected milk was used. The results gave an average of 1.32 kg CO2 equivalents per kilogramme of energy-corrected milk with standard deviation of 0.22, which is consistent with recent studies. The main contributor to this is enteric fermentation from producing animals, resulting in 45 % of total GHG emissions, which is also consistent with previous studies.
Sanna Hietala; Laurence Smith; Marie Trydeman Knudsen; Sirpa Kurppa; Susanne Padel; John E. Hermansen. Carbon footprints of organic dairying in six European countries—real farm data analysis. Organic Agriculture 2014, 5, 91 -100.
AMA StyleSanna Hietala, Laurence Smith, Marie Trydeman Knudsen, Sirpa Kurppa, Susanne Padel, John E. Hermansen. Carbon footprints of organic dairying in six European countries—real farm data analysis. Organic Agriculture. 2014; 5 (2):91-100.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSanna Hietala; Laurence Smith; Marie Trydeman Knudsen; Sirpa Kurppa; Susanne Padel; John E. Hermansen. 2014. "Carbon footprints of organic dairying in six European countries—real farm data analysis." Organic Agriculture 5, no. 2: 91-100.
Resource use and environmental impacts of a small-scale low-input organic vegetable supply system in the United Kingdom were assessed by emergy accounting and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The system consisted of a farm with high crop diversity and a related box-scheme distribution system. We compared empirical data from this case system with two modeled organic food supply systems representing high- and low-yielding practices for organic vegetable production. Further, these systems were embedded in a supermarket distribution system and they provided the same amount of comparable vegetables at the consumers’ door as the case system. The on-farm resource use measured in solar equivalent Joules (seJ) was similar for the case system and the high-yielding model system and higher for the low-yielding model system. The distribution phase of the case system was at least three times as resource efficient as the models and had substantially less environmental impacts when assessed using LCA. The three systems ranked differently for emissions with the high-yielding model system being the worst for terrestrial ecotoxicity and the case system the worst for global warming potential. As a consequence of being embedded in an industrial economy, about 90% of resources (seJ) were used for supporting labor and service.
Mads V. Markussen; Michal Kulak; Laurence G. Smith; Thomas Nemecek; Hanne Østergård. Evaluating the Sustainability of a Small-Scale Low-Input Organic Vegetable Supply System in the United Kingdom. Sustainability 2014, 6, 1913 -1945.
AMA StyleMads V. Markussen, Michal Kulak, Laurence G. Smith, Thomas Nemecek, Hanne Østergård. Evaluating the Sustainability of a Small-Scale Low-Input Organic Vegetable Supply System in the United Kingdom. Sustainability. 2014; 6 (4):1913-1945.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMads V. Markussen; Michal Kulak; Laurence G. Smith; Thomas Nemecek; Hanne Østergård. 2014. "Evaluating the Sustainability of a Small-Scale Low-Input Organic Vegetable Supply System in the United Kingdom." Sustainability 6, no. 4: 1913-1945.
Growing populations and a constrained fossil-manufactured energy supply present a major challenge for society and there is a real need to develop forms of agriculture that are less dependent on finite energy sources. It has been suggested that organic agriculture can provide a more energy efficient approach due to its focus on sustainable production methods. This review has investigated the extent to which this is true for a range of farming systems. Data from about 50 studies were reviewed with results suggesting that organic farming performs better than conventional for nearly all crop types when energy use is expressed on a unit of area basis. Results are more variable per unit of product due to the lower yield for most organic crops. For livestock, ruminant production systems tend to be more energy efficient under organic management due to the production of forage in grass–clover leys. Conversely, organic poultry tend to perform worse in terms of energy use as a result of higher feed conversion ratios and mortality rates compared to conventional fully housed or free-range systems. With regard to energy sources, there is some evidence that organic farms use more renewable energy and have less of an impact on natural ecosystems. Human energy requirements on organic farms are also higher as a result of greater system diversity and manual weed control. Overall this review has found that most organic farming systems are more energy efficient than their conventional counterparts, although there are some notable exceptions.
Laurence Smith; Adrian Williams; Bruce. D. Pearce. The energy efficiency of organic agriculture: A review. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 2014, 30, 280 -301.
AMA StyleLaurence Smith, Adrian Williams, Bruce. D. Pearce. The energy efficiency of organic agriculture: A review. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 2014; 30 (3):280-301.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaurence Smith; Adrian Williams; Bruce. D. Pearce. 2014. "The energy efficiency of organic agriculture: A review." Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 30, no. 3: 280-301.
Catherine Gerrard; Meike Janssen; Laurence Smith; Ulrich Hamm; Susanne Padel. UK consumer reactions to organic certification logos. British Food Journal 2013, 115, 727 -742.
AMA StyleCatherine Gerrard, Meike Janssen, Laurence Smith, Ulrich Hamm, Susanne Padel. UK consumer reactions to organic certification logos. British Food Journal. 2013; 115 (5):727-742.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCatherine Gerrard; Meike Janssen; Laurence Smith; Ulrich Hamm; Susanne Padel. 2013. "UK consumer reactions to organic certification logos." British Food Journal 115, no. 5: 727-742.