Many of the plants and fungi that are harvested for nontimber products (e.g., foods, medicines, crafts) are critical to healthy forest ecosystems. These products also are essential to rural societies, contributing to the material and nonmaterial composition of communities and cultures. Product sales make important contributions at all economic scales, from household to national economies. Nontimber forest products (NTFPs) have been harvested for generations, sometimes centuries, yet they are seldom integrated into forest management. Few methods exist for inventory and assessment, and there is little evidence that harvests are sustainable. This article examines three elements of sustainable forest management for nontimber products: sociocultural, economic, and ecological, and elaborates with detailed examples of edible and medicinal species from United States (U.S.) forests. We synthesize the state of knowledge and emerging issues, and identify research priorities that are needed to advance sustainable management of NTFPs in the United States. Despite their social, economic, and ecological values, many of these species and resources are threatened by the overuse and lack of management and market integration. Sustainable management for nontimber products is attainable, but much research and development is needed to ensure the long-term sustainability of these resources and their cultural values, and to realize their economic potentials.

As a highly aggressive non-native invasive and an allelopathic species, Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) has the capacity to negatively affect native plant communities by suppressing resident species and altering competitive interactions. We examined effects of A. altissima on the establishment and growth of two herbaceous species common in invaded natural areas. Soil samples were collected from six replicate A. altissima-dominated stands and six control stands (no A. altissima present) in the Appalachian Ridge and Valley province of southwestern Virginia. Two target species, Verbesina occidentalis, native to the southeastern US, and Dipsacus fullonum, non-native and invasive throughout North America, were selected for their high germination success and contrasting native vs. invasive status. Germination and growth of target species were monitored in greenhouse flats for six weeks. We found severe reductions in all measured aspects of V. occidentalis when grown in Ailanthus versus control soi...

A broad range of understory forest herbs are harvested for medicinal properties, particularly from species-rich forests of the central and southern Appalachian Mountains. Many species have been collected and used for centuries with little understanding of harvest impacts, some with resulting population declines. Species valued for belowground components, such as Actaea racemosa L. (black cohosh), appear particularly vulnerable to harvest impacts. Between 2005 and 2011, we conducted experimental harvests on natural A. racemosa populations in central Appalachian oak (Quercus L.) forests. Responses were examined during 3 yr of moderate (33% plant removal) and intensive (66% removal) harvest treatments and up to 3 yr of regrowth, to simulate local harvesting practices and assess recovery potential. After 2 yr of moderate harvests, aboveground growth remained similar to controls. However, after 3 yr of moderate harvests or 2 yr of intensive harvests, significant declines were evident. After our third harvest year, leaf area and stem density were 65–80% lower in moderate harvest plots and 80–90% lower in intensive harvest plots, compared with controls. These differences persisted for at least 2 yr after harvests treatments ended. Curve-fitting models suggested recovery of leaf area and mean plant height to preharvest levels after 4–7 yr without further plant removal. In contrast, stem density showed little to no increase during our study period, and model projections suggested declines, rather than recovery. Thus, although individual growth metrics suggested that limited harvesting may be sustainable, results for stem density indicated little new recruitment into the population and concern for long-term population persistence. Forest herbs harvested for belowground components create particular challenges for sustainable management. Our concerns for A. racemosa are applicable to other economically important forest perennials in our region and worldwide and emphasize the need for continued study and monitoring to maintain viable populations and associated natural systems.

Invasive plant species pose serious threats to ecosystem function and community diversity, dominating many natural systems through suppression of, competition with, and replacement of native species. This study examines the distribution of invasive alien plant species relative to vegetation, site characteristics, and disturbance indicators in a relatively unfragmented matrix forest block (∼8,000 ha) in southern New England and provides the first quantitative description of the forested vegetation of this region. Within 139 - 10 × 10 m sample plots, percent ground coverage was estimated for each vascular plant species and basal area determined for all woody species reaching breast height (1.4 m). Site conditions, including topography, soil moisture and fertility, and evidence of current and historical site disturbance, were assessed to identify factors influencing invasive plant abundance. Fifteen relatively distinct vegetation types were identified using NMS ordination and cluster analysis, including wetland forest, terrestrial open woodland, and terrestrial closed canopy vegetation types. Of the 209 species occurring in sample plots, only 10 (4.8%) were invasive. Most abundant were Berberis thunbergii, Celastrus orbiculatus, and Rosa multiflora, each occurring in 5% or fewer plots. Moist sites were invaded most frequently, especially those with high species richness, lower canopy cover, and those dominated by Acer rubrum or Pinus strobus. Site disturbance, particularly roads, trails, and former land use, also was correlated with invasive abundance. The low frequency of invasive plant species in our study area offers an exceptional opportunity to identify ecosystem characteristics inhibitory to invasive plant species and the opportunity to preserve a series of relatively unfragmented and uninvaded natural habitats in this region.

Seed bank composition was sampled in 192–2.5 m2quadrats, established in six regenerating clearcut (∼7 years) and six second-growth (∼125 years) mixed-oak forest stands in southeastern Ohio. Seed bank and aboveground composition diverged markedly (Sørensen's coefficient <10%), emphasizing the importance of fast-growing, early-successional germinants to early ecosystem recovery. Seed richness was significantly (P<.01) higher in clearcut stands, suggesting declining richness with stand age. Richness estimations 28%–60% higher than observed values demonstrated high seed bank heterogeneity, emphasizing the need for intensive sampling to assess temperate forest seed bank variation. Site quality (topographic aspect) strongly influenced seed bank composition, with greater importance of early-successional trees, thicket-forming shrubs, and nonnative species on mesic sites. Thus, forest seed banks are likely to play an important, site-dependent role in shaping competitive environments for commercially important timber species after harvesting and soil disturbance and have the potential for marked influence on postharvest forest development.