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Mr. Kevin Pérez
Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Católica del Norte, Av. Angamos 610, Antofagasta 1270709, Chile

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Review article
Published: 13 August 2021 in Journal of Materials Research and Technology
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Chile is the world's leading copper producer (28.3%) and maintains approximately 23.0% of current global reserves. Chile is faced with a significant risk posed by its collection of the most unsustainable and antiquated smelter operations among major copper producers worldwide. Moreover, forecasts also indicate a trend toward higher proportions of copper sulphide ores that carry high impurities, especially arsenic. To achieve the planned production increases, improve competitiveness in the global market, and reduce reliance on international smelting capacities, Chile must make significant and justifiable investment into new and/or existing smelting operations through equipment modernization. The required investment for upgrades may be on the order of billions of dollars. This review analyzes current roadblocks faced by the Chilean copper smelters and potential solutions according to environmental, economic and strategic factors. Recent advances in smelting technologies have focused on flash and bath smelting; despite a general trend toward flash furnace systems, recent bath furnace methods (e.g. China's SKS-BBS) are equally promising, particularly for varying and complex feeds. Strategic policies should focus on regionalized, non-integrated custom smelters, which can handle ores from a variety of sources while reducing overall operating costs. The government must play a fundamental role to incentivise the investments necessary to develop new smelter operations and upgrade existing infrastructure. With a large portion of copper concentrate exports coming from privately owned mines, synergistic efforts with industry partners will be crucial to increase overall smelting capacity and position Chile as a global leader in the smelting of copper concentrates.

ACS Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Edelmira Gálvez; Pedro Robles; Ryan Wilson; Alessandro Navarra. Environmental, economic and technological factors affecting Chilean copper smelters – A critical review. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 2021, 15, 213 -225.

AMA Style

Kevin Pérez, Norman Toro, Edelmira Gálvez, Pedro Robles, Ryan Wilson, Alessandro Navarra. Environmental, economic and technological factors affecting Chilean copper smelters – A critical review. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 2021; 15 ():213-225.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Edelmira Gálvez; Pedro Robles; Ryan Wilson; Alessandro Navarra. 2021. "Environmental, economic and technological factors affecting Chilean copper smelters – A critical review." Journal of Materials Research and Technology 15, no. : 213-225.

Journal article
Published: 04 April 2020 in Metals
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Covellite is a secondary copper sulfide, and it is not abundant. There are few investigations on this mineral in spite of it being formed during the leaching of chalcocite or digenite; the other investigations on covellite are with the use of mineraloids, copper concentrates, and synthetic covellite. The present investigation applied the surface optimization methodology using a central composite face design to evaluate the effect of leaching time, chloride concentration, and sulfuric acid concentration on the level of copper extraction from covellite (84.3% of purity). Copper is dissolved from a sample of pure covellite without the application of temperature or pressure; the importance of its purity is that the behavior of the parameters is analyzed, isolating the impurities that affect leaching. The chloride came from NaCl, and it was effectuated in a size range from –150 to +106 μm. An ANOVA indicated that the leaching time and chloride concentration have the most significant influence, while the copper extraction was independent of sulfuric acid concentration. The experimental data were described by a highly representative quadratic model obtained by linear regression (R2 = 0.99).

ACS Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Manuel Saldaña; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; David Torres; Ricardo I. Jeldres. Statistical Study for Leaching of Covellite in a Chloride Media. Metals 2020, 10, 477 .

AMA Style

Kevin Pérez, Norman Toro, Manuel Saldaña, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Pedro Robles, David Torres, Ricardo I. Jeldres. Statistical Study for Leaching of Covellite in a Chloride Media. Metals. 2020; 10 (4):477.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Manuel Saldaña; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; David Torres; Ricardo I. Jeldres. 2020. "Statistical Study for Leaching of Covellite in a Chloride Media." Metals 10, no. 4: 477.

Journal article
Published: 17 March 2020 in Metals
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Studying the dissolution of chalcocite allows to understand the behavior of the most abundant secondary sulfide ore in copper deposits, while digenite (Cu1.8S) and other intermediate sulfides (Cu2−xS) are often associated with chalcocite. The most common mechanism of dissolution is by two stages, and chloride ions benefit the kinetics of dissolution. In this study, a pure chalcocite mineral (99.9% according to XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) analysis) is leached in chloride media using NaCl and wastewater as the sources of chloride. Magnetic leaching tests are performed at 65, 75, and 95 °C, using a particle size between −150 and + 106 μm. Chloride concentration and leaching time are the main variables. A substantial dissolution of chalcocite was obtained with 0.5 M H2SO4, 100 g/L of chloride and a leaching time of 3 h. The apparent activation energy (Ea) derived from the slopes of the Arrhenius plots was 36 kJ/mol. The XRD analysis proves the presence of elemental sulfur (S0) as the main component in the leaching residue. No significant differences in copper extraction were detected when using 100 g/L of chloride ion or wastewater (39 g/L).

ACS Style

Kevin Pérez; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Steven Nieto; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; Víctor Quezada; Juan Hernández Avila; Norman Toro. Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Waste Water at High Temperature. Metals 2020, 10, 384 .

AMA Style

Kevin Pérez, Ricardo I. Jeldres, Steven Nieto, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Pedro Robles, Víctor Quezada, Juan Hernández Avila, Norman Toro. Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Waste Water at High Temperature. Metals. 2020; 10 (3):384.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kevin Pérez; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Steven Nieto; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; Víctor Quezada; Juan Hernández Avila; Norman Toro. 2020. "Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Waste Water at High Temperature." Metals 10, no. 3: 384.

Journal article
Published: 15 January 2020 in Metals
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Oxidized black copper ores are known for their difficulty in dissolving their components of interest through conventional methods. This is due to its non-crystalline and amorphous structure. Among these minerals, copper pitch and copper wad are of great interest because of their considerable concentrations of copper and manganese. Currently, these minerals are not incorporated into the extraction circuits or left untreated, whether in stock, leach pads, or waste. For the recovery of its main elements of interest (Cu and Mn), it is necessary to use reducing agents that dissolve the present MnO2, while allowing the recovery of Cu. In this research, the results for the dissolution of Mn and Cu from a black copper mineral are exposed, evaluating the reducing effect of NaCl for MnO2 through pre-treatment of agglomerate and curing, and subsequently leaching in standard condition with the use of a reducing agent (Fe2+). High concentrations of chloride in the agglomerate process and prolonged curing times would favor the reduction of MnO2, increasing the dissolution of Mn, while the addition of NaCl did not benefit Cu extractions. Under standard conditions, low Mn extractions were obtained, while in an acid-reducing medium, a significant dissolution of MnO2 was achieved, which supports the removal of Cu.

ACS Style

David Torres; Kevin Pérez; Emilio Trigueros; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; Norman Toro. Reducing-Effect of Chloride for the Dissolution of Black Copper. Metals 2020, 10, 123 .

AMA Style

David Torres, Kevin Pérez, Emilio Trigueros, Ricardo I. Jeldres, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Pedro Robles, Norman Toro. Reducing-Effect of Chloride for the Dissolution of Black Copper. Metals. 2020; 10 (1):123.

Chicago/Turabian Style

David Torres; Kevin Pérez; Emilio Trigueros; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez; Pedro Robles; Norman Toro. 2020. "Reducing-Effect of Chloride for the Dissolution of Black Copper." Metals 10, no. 1: 123.

Journal article
Published: 18 October 2019 in Metals
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Exotic type deposits include several species of minerals, such as atacamite, chrysocolla, copper pitch, and copper wad. Among these, copper pitch and copper wad have considerable concentrations of manganese. However, their non-crystalline and amorphous structure makes it challenging to recover the elements of interest (like Cu or Mn) by conventional hydrometallurgical methods. For this reason, black copper ores are generally not incorporated into the extraction circuits or left unprocessed, whether in stock, leach pads, or waste. Therefore, to dilute MnO2, the use of reducing agents is essential. In the present research, agitated leaching was performed to dissolve Mn of black copper in an acidic medium, comparing the use of ferrous ions and tailings as reducing agents. Two samples of black copper were studied, of high and low grade of Mn, respectively, the latter with a high content of clays. The effect on the reducing agent/black copper ratio and the concentration of sulfuric acid in the system were evaluated. Better results in removing Mn were achieved using the highest-grade black copper sample when working with ferrous ions at a ratio of Fe2+/black copper of 2/1 and 1 mol/L of sulfuric acid. Besides, the low-grade sample induced a significant consumption of H2SO4 due to the high presence of gangue and clays.

ACS Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Eduardo Campos; Javier González; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Amin Nazer; Mario H. Rodriguez. Extraction of Mn from Black Copper Using Iron Oxides from Tailings and Fe2+ as Reducing Agents in Acid Medium. Metals 2019, 9, 1112 .

AMA Style

Kevin Pérez, Norman Toro, Eduardo Campos, Javier González, Ricardo I. Jeldres, Amin Nazer, Mario H. Rodriguez. Extraction of Mn from Black Copper Using Iron Oxides from Tailings and Fe2+ as Reducing Agents in Acid Medium. Metals. 2019; 9 (10):1112.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kevin Pérez; Norman Toro; Eduardo Campos; Javier González; Ricardo I. Jeldres; Amin Nazer; Mario H. Rodriguez. 2019. "Extraction of Mn from Black Copper Using Iron Oxides from Tailings and Fe2+ as Reducing Agents in Acid Medium." Metals 9, no. 10: 1112.

Journal article
Published: 12 July 2019 in Metals
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Chalcocite is the most important and abundant secondary copper ore in the world with a rapid dissolution of copper in an acid-chloride environment. In this investigation, the methodology of surface optimization will be applied to evaluate the effect of three independent variables (time, concentration of sulfuric acid and chloride concentration) in the leaching of pure chalcocite to extract the copper with the objective of obtaining a quadratic model that allows us to predict the extraction of copper. The kinetics of copper dissolution in regard to the function of temperature is also analyzed. An ANOVA indicates that the linear variables with the greatest influence are time and the chloride concentration. Also, the concentration of chloride-time exerts a significant synergic effect in the quadratic model. The ANOVA indicates that the quadratic model is representative and the R2 value of 0.92 is valid. The highest copper extraction (67.75%) was obtained at 48 h leaching under conditions of 2 mol/L H2SO4 and 100 g/L chloride. The XRD analysis shows the formation of a stable and non-polluting residue; such as elemental sulfur (S0). This residue was obtained in a leaching time of 4 h at room temperature under conditions of 0.5 mol/L H2SO4 and 50 g/L Cl−.

ACS Style

Norman Toro; Williams Briceño; Kevin Pérez; Manuel Cánovas; Emilio Trigueros; Rossana Sepúlveda; Pía Hernández. Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Sea Water and Waste Water. Metals 2019, 9, 780 .

AMA Style

Norman Toro, Williams Briceño, Kevin Pérez, Manuel Cánovas, Emilio Trigueros, Rossana Sepúlveda, Pía Hernández. Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Sea Water and Waste Water. Metals. 2019; 9 (7):780.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Norman Toro; Williams Briceño; Kevin Pérez; Manuel Cánovas; Emilio Trigueros; Rossana Sepúlveda; Pía Hernández. 2019. "Leaching of Pure Chalcocite in a Chloride Media Using Sea Water and Waste Water." Metals 9, no. 7: 780.

Journal article
Published: 24 May 2019 in Minerals
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The effect of NaCl on the leaching of white metal from a Teniente Converter was investigated in NaCl-H2SO4 media under environmental conditions. The copper dissolution from white metal was studied using ferric ions in the range of 1–10 g/L, NaCl in the range of 30–210 g/L, and sulfuric acid in the range of 10–50 g/L. The test without NaCl produced a dissolution of 55%; through the addition of NaCl, the dissolution increased to nearly 90%. The effect of sulfuric acid on the copper dissolution was not significant in the studied range, as the excess sulfuric acid simply increased the iron precipitation. The positive effect of NaCl seems to be related to the action of chloro-complex oxidizing agents in relation to the Cu+2/Cu+ couple. A simplified two-stage mechanism is proposed for the leaching of white metal. In the first stage, the white metal produces covellite and Cu2+, and in the second stage it produces elemental sulfur and Cu2+. The first stage is very rapidly compared to the second stage.

ACS Style

Jonathan Castillo; Rossana Sepúlveda; Giselle Araya; Danny Guzmán; Norman Toro; Kevin Pérez; Marcelo Rodríguez; Alessandro Navarra. Leaching of White Metal in a NaCl-H2SO4 System under Environmental Conditions. Minerals 2019, 9, 319 .

AMA Style

Jonathan Castillo, Rossana Sepúlveda, Giselle Araya, Danny Guzmán, Norman Toro, Kevin Pérez, Marcelo Rodríguez, Alessandro Navarra. Leaching of White Metal in a NaCl-H2SO4 System under Environmental Conditions. Minerals. 2019; 9 (5):319.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jonathan Castillo; Rossana Sepúlveda; Giselle Araya; Danny Guzmán; Norman Toro; Kevin Pérez; Marcelo Rodríguez; Alessandro Navarra. 2019. "Leaching of White Metal in a NaCl-H2SO4 System under Environmental Conditions." Minerals 9, no. 5: 319.