Until now, no third gradient theory has been proposed to describe the homogenized energy associated with a microscopic structure. In this paper, we prove that this is possible using pantographic-type structures. Their deformation energies involve combinations of nodal displacements having the form of second-order or third-order finite differences. We establish the Γ-convergence of these energies to second and third gradient functionals. Some mechanical examples are provided so as to illustrate the special features of these homogenized models.

Gabrio Piola’s scientific papers have been underestimated in mathematical physics literature. Indeed, a careful reading of them proves that they are original, deep and far-reaching. Actually, even if his contribution to the mechanical sciences is not completely ignored, one can undoubtedly say that the greatest part of his novel contributions to mechanics, although having provided a great impetus to and substantial influence on the work of many preeminent mechanicians, is in fact generally ignored. It has to be remarked that authors Capecchi and Ruta dedicated many efforts to the aim of unveiling the true value of Gabrio Piola as a scientist; however, some deep parts of his scientific results remain not yet sufficiently illustrated. Our aim is to prove that non-local and higher-gradient continuum mechanics were conceived already in Piola’s works and to try to explain the reasons for the unfortunate circumstance which caused the erasure of the memory of this aspect of Piola’s contribution. Some relevant differential relationships obtained in Piola (Memoria intorno alle equazioni fondamentali del movimento di corpi qualsivogliono considerati secondo la naturale loro forma e costituzione, 1846) are carefully discussed, as they are still too often ignored in the continuum mechanics literature and can be considered the starting point of Levi-Civita’s theory of connection for Riemannian manifolds.

In the spirit of Germain the most general objective stored elastic energy for a second gradient material is deduced using a literature result of Fortuné & Vallée. Linear isotropic constitutive relations for stress and hyperstress in terms of strain and strain-gradient are then obtained proving that these materials are characterized by seven elastic moduli and generalizing previous studies by Toupin, Mindlin and Sokolowski. Using a suitable decomposition of the strain-gradient, it is found a necessary and sufficient condition, to be verified by the elastic moduli, assuring positive definiteness of the stored elastic energy. The problem of warping in linear torsion of a prismatic second gradient cylinder is formulated, thus obtaining a possible measurement procedure for one of the second gradient elastic moduli.

Since the first studies dedicated to the mechanics of deformable bodies (by Euler, D’Alembert, Lagrange) the principle of virtual work (or virtual velocities) has been used to provide firm guidance to the formulation of novel theories. Gabrio Piola dedicated his scientific life to formulating a continuum theory in order to encompass a large class of deformation phenomena and was the first author to consider continua with non-local internal interactions and, as a particular case, higher-gradient continua. More recent followers of Piola (Mindlin, Sedov and then Richard Toupin) recognized the principle of virtual work (and its particular case, the principle of least action) as the (only!) firm foundation of continuum mechanics. Mindlin and Toupin managed to formulate a conceptual frame for continuum mechanics which is able to effectively model the complex behaviour of so-called architectured, advanced, multiscale or microstructured (meta)materials. Other postulation schemes, in contrast, do not seem able to be equally efficient. The present work aims to provide a historical and theoretical overview of the subject. Some research perspectives concerning this theoretical approach are outlined in the final section.