Mycotoxins are well established toxic metabolic entities produced when fungi invade agricultural/farm produce, and this happens especially when the conditions are favourable. Exposure to mycotoxins can directly take place via the consumption of infected foods and feeds; humans can also be indirectly exposed from consuming animals fed with infected feeds. Among the hundreds of mycotoxins known to humans, around a handful have drawn the most concern because of their occurrence in food and severe effects on human health. The increasing public health importance of mycotoxins across human and livestock environments mandates the continued review of the relevant literature, especially with regard to understanding their toxicological mechanisms. In particular, our analysis of recently conducted reviews showed that the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins deserve additional attention to help provide enhanced understanding regarding this subject matter. For this reason, this current work reviewed the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock, and their associated health concerns. In particular, we have deepened our understanding about how the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms impact on the human cellular genome. Along with the significance of mycotoxin toxicities and their toxicological mechanisms, there are associated health concerns arising from exposures to these toxins, including DNA damage, kidney damage, DNA/RNA mutations, growth impairment in children, gene modifications, and immune impairment. More needs to be done to enhance the understanding regards the mechanisms underscoring the environmental implications of mycotoxins, which can be actualized via risk assessment studies into the conditions/factors facilitating mycotoxins’ toxicities.

In recent years, indigenous medicinal plants exhibiting diverse biological activities have been explored in the amelioration of hepatotoxicity. This study investigates the protective effect of Monodora myristica (MM) on cadmium-induced liver damage in experimental animals. Male Wistar albino rats were maintained on 200 mg/L cadmium: Cd (Cd as CdCl2) in the animals’ main drinking water to induce hepatotoxicity. Added to this, the animals received aqueous extracts of MM at a dose of 200 or 400 and 20 mg/kg bw of Livolin forte (LF) for 21 days. At the end of the experiment, levels of serum enzyme biomarkers (alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate transaminase) as well as total cholesterol (TC), triacylglyceride (TG) and malondialdehyde were significantly raised in the cadmium treated groups. Conversely, cadmium treatment elicited noticeable decrease in hepatic enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants (reduced glutathione: GSH, catalase: CAT, superoxide dismutase: SOD). Co-treatment with MM at varying doses as well as LF considerably decreased the elevated levels of the serum biomarkers as well as TC, TG and malondialdehyde in the cadmium-treated groups in a dose dependant manner. Additionally, MM exhibited reversal potential on cadmium-toxicity at the tested doses as its administration was accompanied by a pronounced increase in GSH, SOD, and CAT levels. Histopathological results were parallel to these findings. These results demonstrates that aqueous extracts of MM is effective in the amelioration of hepatic damages arising from cadmium-induced toxicity, indicating that the antioxidant bio-constituents of MM play an important role in the prevention of liver toxicity possibly by inhibiting bioaccumulation of free radicals in animal models.

A short-term study was carried out on Wistar strain rats to determine the effects of Xylopia aethiopica extract on serum and postmitochondrial fractions (PMFs) of visceral organs in experimental hypercholesterolemia. Animals received normal diet and were administered cholesterol orally by intubations at a dose of 40 mg/kg/0.3 mL, plant extracts at 250 mg/kg, and cholestyramine (Questran^®, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Hounslow, United Kingdom) at 0.26 g/kg five times a week for 8 consecutive weeks. Thereafter the hypolipidemic effects were assessed by measuring total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and triglycerides, whereas the extent of oxidative stress was assayed by measuring thiobarbituric acid–reactive substances and enzymatic antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and reduced glutathione (GSH) in serum and PMF of liver and kidney. We assayed two liver biomarkers—alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase—for safety of X. aethiopica at the dose given in this experiment. Cholesterol feeding resulted in a significant increase (P < .05) in body weight of the hypercholesterolemic animals relative to control animals, and administration of X. aethiopica (250 mg/kg) caused a more than 60% reduction in body weight. Simultaneous treatment with X. aethiopica and Questran elicited 33.75% and 23.94% reductions, respectively, in serum cholesterol levels of hypercholesterolemic rats. In addition, the LDL-C level decreased significantly (P < .05) by 49.09% and 78.92% in serum and by 64.97% and 37.29% in the liver with cotreatment with the plant extract and Questran, respectively, compared to untreated hypercholesterolemic rats. X. aethiopica counteracted the decreases in enzymatic antioxidants, especially in GSH, where there was a greater than 300% increase compared with hypercholesterolemic animals. This study has shown that intake of X. aethiopica reduced the composition of lipids and produced a favorable lipid profile in the serum and PMF of visceral organs in experimental hypercholesterolemia.

To evaluate the cholesterol lowering potential and protective ability of aqueous extract of Monodora myristica experimental hypercholesterolemic rats, a short-term study was conducted. Hypercholesterolemia was induced by administering cholesterol orally at a dose of 40 mg/kg/0.3 ml. Plant extracts 100 or 200 mg/kg body weight and Questran 0.26 g/kg were administered five times a week for eight weeks for amelioration. Hypolipidemic effects were evaluated by measuring total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides (TG) in the serum, while the protective ability was measured by the extent of lipid peroxidation (LPO) as well as enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants levels in post mitochondrial fractions (PMF) of the hepatic and cardiac homogenates. Serum aminotransferases activities were also monitored. Results obtained shows that treatment with M. myristica elicited a significant reduction in serum TC, TG and LDL-C levels while there was concomitant increase in HDL-C of hypercholesterolemic rats. Elevations in serum aminotransferases activities and LPO level were reversed and a significant amelioration was noticed in enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants status in the liver and heart of hypercholesterolemic rats. This study suggests that M. myristica possess cholesterol lowering potentials and protective ability in experimental hypercholesterolemia rat model.

In recent years there have been remarkable developments in the prevention of diseases, especially with regards to the role of free radicals and antioxidants. Ethanol-induced oxidative stress appears to be one mechanism by which ethanol causes liver injury. The protective effect of aqueous plant extract of Aframomum melegueta on ethanol-induced toxicity was investigated in male Wistar rats. The rats were treated with 45 % ethanol (4.8 g/kg b.w.t.) for 16 days to induce alcoholic diseases in the liver. The activities of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and triglyceride were monitored and the histological changes in liver examined in order to evaluate the protective effects of the plant extract. Hepatic malondialdehyde and reduced glutathione, as well as superoxide dismutase and glutathione-S-transferase activities were determined for the antioxidant status. Chronic ethanol administration resulted in a statistically significant elevation of serum alanine aminotransferases and triglyceride levels, as well as a decrease in reduced glutathione and superoxide dismutase which was dramatically attenuated by the co-administration of the plant extract. Histological changes were related to these indices. Co-administration of the plant extract suppressed the elevation of lipid peroxidation, restored the reduced glutathion, and enhanced the superoxide dismutase activity. These results highlight the ability of Aframomum melegueta to ameliorate oxidative damage in the liver and the observed effects are associated with its antioxidant activities.