Mycotoxins are well established toxic metabolic entities produced when fungi invade agricultural/farm produce, and this happens especially when the conditions are favourable. Exposure to mycotoxins can directly take place via the consumption of infected foods and feeds; humans can also be indirectly exposed from consuming animals fed with infected feeds. Among the hundreds of mycotoxins known to humans, around a handful have drawn the most concern because of their occurrence in food and severe effects on human health. The increasing public health importance of mycotoxins across human and livestock environments mandates the continued review of the relevant literature, especially with regard to understanding their toxicological mechanisms. In particular, our analysis of recently conducted reviews showed that the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins deserve additional attention to help provide enhanced understanding regarding this subject matter. For this reason, this current work reviewed the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock, and their associated health concerns. In particular, we have deepened our understanding about how the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms impact on the human cellular genome. Along with the significance of mycotoxin toxicities and their toxicological mechanisms, there are associated health concerns arising from exposures to these toxins, including DNA damage, kidney damage, DNA/RNA mutations, growth impairment in children, gene modifications, and immune impairment. More needs to be done to enhance the understanding regards the mechanisms underscoring the environmental implications of mycotoxins, which can be actualized via risk assessment studies into the conditions/factors facilitating mycotoxins’ toxicities.

Physiological and biochemical responses of selected cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) accessions to iron toxicity

Background Iron Deficiency Anaemia (IDA) is a major public health challenge in East Africa, particularly affecting children and women. Conventional therapies are often limited by accessibility and cost, prompting interest in plant-based interventions as affordable and locally available alternatives. This review explores the potential of medicinal plants in managing IDA, focusing on their phytochemical composition, mechanisms of action, and haematological effects. Methods A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases was conducted on July 17, 2024. The search strategy utilised Boolean operators and keywords related to plants, IDA management, and East Africa. Studies meeting inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed articles published in English that evaluated plant-based treatments for IDA in preclinical or clinical trials. A total of 30 eligible studies were included after screening and quality assessment following PRISMA guidelines. Results The review identified plants such as Moringa oleifera , Phyllanthus emblica , and Telfairia occidentalis as effective in improving haemoglobin levels, red blood cell counts, and other haematological indices. Mechanisms include enhanced iron absorption, antioxidant activity, and stimulation of haematopoiesis. Extraction techniques commonly used were high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and aqueous methods. Key phytochemicals like flavonoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds played critical roles in IDA management. Despite promising outcomes, variations in treatment duration and protocols were noted, highlighting the need for standardisation. Conclusion Plant-based therapies offer accessible, cost-effective solutions for managing IDA in East Africa, leveraging local resources and phytochemical properties. However, further pharmacological and toxicological studies are essential to confirm safety and efficacy. This review emphasises the potential of medicinal plants in addressing IDA and calls for the exploration of underutilised plant species and the development of standardised therapeutic protocols.

Background: Abiotic stresses like low temperatures are contributory factors to the variations observed among species during plant germination, growth, and development. The present study evaluated the morphological and genetic responses of maize (Zea mays L.) seedling to cold shock induced by a one-time exposure to low temperature. Seeds were originally exposed to distilled water at room temperature for 48 h before they were completely submerged in buckets of ice for 0.5, 1.5, 3, 6, and 12 h, respectively, and then transferred into Petri dishes. The set up was left on the laboratory bench for an additional 5 days, and plant germination parameters were measured. DNA was extracted and this was followed by RAPD—polymerase chain reaction. Results: Significant growth impairment upon exposure to cold shock corresponding to the length of time of exposure was shown. The length of the prominent root significantly reduced upon exposure to a cold shock from 141.8 mm to as low as 91.4 mm in those plants exposed at 1.5 h. The length of the prominent leaf also significantly reduced from 100.6 mm in the control to between 62.6 and 85.5 mm in low-temperature-exposed plants (p < 0.05), notwithstanding the time of exposure. There were significant reductions in final germination percent in the low-temperature-exposed germinants (35.8–60.5%) when compared to the control (88.5%). The RAPD marker (OPA04) revealed variations in germinated maize seeds after treatment with different duration of low temperatures. The test plantlets treated for 0, 0.5, and 1.5 h have an unrecognizable complementary sequence to the primer OPA04, whereas the primer amplified regions of the genome of test plantlets treated for 3, 6, and 12 h. Primer OPA05 also presented diversity among maize seedlings stressed for various durations of cold shock. Conclusion: The existence of genetic variations in the present study has far-reaching effects on the development of maize exposed to varying degrees of cold stress. Though restricted to germination only, they are important because the development of plants begins at the germination stage. These changes may affect the characteristics of economic importance or perhaps impact on the physiology of the maize plant eventually.