Accumulated evidence claims that urban green spaces (UGS) have a positive impact on the physical and mental health of humans. However, little information is available to clearly reveal what the most important driving factors are for human psychophysiological restoration. In order to unveil this uncertainty, this study employed virtual reality (VR) technology to investigate the physiological (electroencephalogram, EEG), and psychological (attention, positive mood, negative mood) responses and individual preferences for different urban environments. Participants (120) were recruited and randomly assigned to experience six different types of environments varying in land use and vegetation structures, which were: Grey space, blue space, open green space, partly open green space, partly closed green space, and closed green space. The results showed that the experience of the six environmental types through VR devices had positive restorative effects on the individuals’ attentional fatigue and negative mood; however, all the participants obtained the highest levels of physiological stress restoration when asked to close their eyes for relaxation. The physiological measurements of the EEG showed no significant differences among the selected types of environments. Meanwhile, the results of the psychological measures suggested that only negative mood showed significant differences of change among the six types of environments, and while the partly open green space had the most positive effect on negative mood, the closed green space had the worst. The blue space and partly closed green space received higher recreational preference ratings than the other four environments, while the closed green space received the lowest recreational preference rating. Moreover, the findings showed that there was a strong positive correlation between people’s preferences and the improvement of their positive mood. This indicated that as the popularity of a natural environment increased, so did the benefits of human health and well-being. In addition, this study shows that VR technology may be utilized as a possible surrogate measure to real scenes in evaluating human physiological and psychological restoration in the future. The present findings can provide the theoretical basis and practical guidance for future optimal planning of urban restorative environments.

Several studies have revealed the positive effects of green space and certain activities on counteracting the physical and mental pressure felt by human beings. However, how self-reported stressed people perceive restorative green spaces, their preferences for specific characteristics and activities, and what characteristics of urban green space can induce various types of activities for stress recovery has not been fully examined in the high-density cities of China. Using an on-site questionnaire survey conducted in the People’s Park (PP) in Baoji, China, this study is the first to consider the relationship among eight sensory dimensions, activity types and stress recovery in Chinese green space. Results showed that the highest-stressed respondents were more likely to spend their time in multi-layered woodlands adjacent to water, with more experiences of serene but less about prospect. They preferred serene dimension more, while the culture and social dimensions were least preferred. Sports and leisure activities and quiet activities were the most popular among highest-stressed respondents, which were positively related to the serene and nature dimensions, respectively. Results suggested that the most restorative environment for stress recovery can be regarded as multi-layered woodlands adjacent to water with more serene and nature, less prospect and few or no culture and social dimensions.

Evidence has been accumulating of the psychological and physiological benefits and well-being gained by individuals from recreational activities in urban green spaces due to their ability to sustain biodiversity, but maximizing both biodiversity and recreational values of green spaces has become increasingly difficult in practice. In order to better maximize the biodiversity and recreational value of urban green space, this study was conducted through the utilization of an onsite questionnaire to understand people’s perceptions of and preferences for biodiversity and recreational values of urban green spaces in Baoji City, China. The results showed that respondents were able to correctly perceive biodiversity and preferred to engage in recreational activities in the high biodiversity environment. However, the respondents’ perceptions of the eight perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) in the different habitats were divergent, and an environment which is high in biodiversity does not necessarily have higher PSDs. Moreover, ‘living environment’ and ‘frequency to the park’ had significant impacts on perception of and preference for urban biodiversity. In addition, ‘education level’, ‘living environment’, ‘age’, and other indicators were more likely to influence the perception of the eight PSDs. Therefore, the presented findings can be applied by urban landscape planners to assess the qualities of urban green spaces in order to maintain urban biodiversity and meet the satisfaction of human recreation in the future.