Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture sector play an important role for global warming and climate change. Thus, it is necessary to find out GHG emissions mitigation strategies from rice cultivation. The efficient management of nitrogen fertilizer using urea deep placement (UDP) and the use of the water-saving alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation could mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and reduce environmental pollution. However, there is a dearth of studies on the impacts of UDP and the integrated plant nutrient system (IPNS) which combines poultry manure and prilled urea (PU) with different irrigation regimes on GHG emissions, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and rice yields. We conducted field experiments during the dry seasons of 2018, 2019, and 2020 to compare the effects of four fertilizer treatments including control (no N), PU, UDP, and IPNS in combination with two irrigation systems- (AWD and continuous flooding, CF) on GHG emissions, NUE and rice yield. Fertilizer treatments had significant (p < 0.05) interaction effects with irrigation regimes on methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. PU reduced CH₄ and N₂O emissions by 6% and 20% compared to IPNS treatment, respectively under AWD irrigation, but produced similar emissions under CF irrigation. Similarly, UDP reduced cumulative CH₄ emissions by 9% and 15% under AWD irrigation, and 9% and 11% under CF condition compared to PU and IPNS treatments, respectively. Across the year and fertilizer treatments, AWD irrigation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced cumulative CH₄ emissions and GHG intensity by 28%, and 26%, respectively without significant yield loss compared to CF condition. Although AWD irrigation increased cumulative N₂O emissions by 73%, it reduced the total global warming potential by 27% compared to CF irrigation. The CH₄ emission factor for AWD was lower (1.67 kg ha^-1 day^-1) compared to CF (2.33 kg ha^-1 day^-1). Across the irrigation regimes, UDP increased rice yield by 21% and N recovery efficiency by 58% compared to PU. These results suggest that both UDP and AWD irrigation might be considered as a carbon-friendly technology.

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation in lowland rice cultivation increases water use efficiency and could reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to the farmers' practice of continuous flooding (CF). However, there is a dearth of studies on the impacts of water management on methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in Bangladesh. Multi-location field experiments were conducted during the dry seasons of 2018 and 2019 to determine the baseline emissions of CH4 and N2O from rice fields and compare the emissions from AWD irrigation and CF. CH4 and N2O emissions were measured using the closed chamber technique and their concentrations were determined using a gas chromatograph. CH4 and N2O emissions varied across water management schemes and sites. AWD irrigation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced cumulative CH4 emissions (37%, average across sites) without affecting grain yields compared to CF. The CH4 emission factor for AWD was lower (1.39 kg ha-1 day-1) compared to CF (2.21 kg ha-1 day-1). Although AWD irrigation increased seasonal cumulative N2O emissions by 46%, it did not offset reduced CH4 emissions. AWD reduced the total global warming potential (GWP) by 36% compared to CF. Similarly, GHG intensity (GHGI) in AWD was 34% smaller compared to that in CF. Emissions varied across sites and the magnitudes of seasonal cumulative CH4 and N2O emissions were higher at the Gazipur site compared to the Mymensingh site. AWD, which saves irrigation water without any yield penalty, could be considered a promising strategy to mitigate GHG emissions from rice fields in Bangladesh.