Consumption of microbial-contaminated water can result in diarrheal illnesses and enteropathy with the heaviest impact upon children below the age of five. We aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of water quality in a low-resource setting in Limpopo province, South Africa. Surveys were conducted in 405 households in rural communities of Limpopo province to determine their water-use practices, perceptions of water quality, and household water-treatment methods. Drinking water samples were tested from households for microbiological contamination. Water from potential natural sources were tested for physicochemical and microbiological quality in the dry and wet seasons. Most households had their primary water source piped into their yard or used an intermittent public tap. Approximately one third of caregivers perceived that they could get sick from drinking water. All natural water sources tested positive for fecal contamination at some point during each season. The treated municipal supply never tested positive for fecal contamination; however, the treated system does not reach all residents in the valley; furthermore, frequent shutdowns of the treatment systems and intermittent distribution make the treated water unreliable. The increased water quantity in the wet season correlates with increased treated water from municipal taps and a decrease in the average contaminant levels in household water. This research suggests that wet season increases in water quantity result in more treated water in the region and that is reflected in residents’ water-use practices.

The technological performance and social acceptance of ceramic water filters impregnated with silver nanoparticles for point-of-use water treatment were investigated in the laboratory and in the field in the Guatemalan highland community of San Mateo Ixtatán. In the laboratory, filters were constructed with clay and sawdust collected from the Guatemalan community and were tested to determine the effects of percent sawdust and silver nanoparticle treatment on the transport and removal of E. coli. For ceramic filters without silver treatment, size-exclusion and/or sorption is the mechanism of removal and a lower mass-percent sawdust corresponds to greater bacteria removal. The addition of silver nanoparticles to the ceramic filters improved the performance for all mass percentages of sawdust relative to filter media without nanoparticle treatment. Filters with higher porosity achieved higher bacteria removal than those with lower porosity, suggesting an increase in burnable material percentage is advantageous, assuming structural integrity is not compromised. Subsequent to laboratory testing, ceramic filters were manufactured with local materials and labor in San Mateo Ixtatán, Guatemala, and distributed to 62 households in this peri-urban community. The study participants were randomly divided into two groups, and filters were tested periodically over 23 months or 12 months. Filtered effluent samples were tested for turbidity reduction, bacteria removal, and silver leaching. Over the course of the study, the average percent reduction in total coliforms and E. coli was 87% and 92%, respectively. The average effluent turbidity was 0.18 nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs) and average effluent concentration of ionic silver was $0.02\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{L}$ (below the U.S. EPA standard of $0.1\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{L}$ ). Filters distributed to the second study group consistently performed better than the first study group as manufacturing techniques improved and contact with researchers increased. Overall, users were satisfied with the filters, citing them as easy to use and maintain while improving water quality. The findings of this study suggest that locally manufactured ceramic filters can significantly improve the microbiological quality of water when used as a point-of-use water-treatment technology.

Four materials with high sorptive capacities for organic compounds [granular activated carbon (GAC), shale, benzyltriethylammonium-bentonite (BTEA-bentonite), and hexadecyltrimethylammonium-bentonite (HDTMA-bentonite)] were evaluated for their use in compacted clay landfill liners by conducting laboratory sorption and permeability experiments with both a 0.002 N CaS O4 solution (to simulate the ionic strength of ground water) and a synthetic leachate. Results from equilibrium sorption experiments with 0.002 N CaS O4 indicate that all four amendments have a very high sorptive capacity for the three organic solutes tested: benzene, trichloroethylene, and 1,2-dichlorobenzene. GAC exhibited the highest sorptive capacity for all three solutes, followed by BTEA-bentonite, HDTMA-bentonite, and shale. Experiments conducted with synthetic leachate indicate that GAC and BTEA-bentonite did not exhibit competitive sorption effects with the synthetic leachate constituents, while shale did exhibit some competitive sorp...