Psilocybe cubensis, a widely recognized psychoactive mushroom species, has played a significant role in both historical and modern therapeutic practices. This review explores the complex interplay between genetic diversity, strain variability and environmental factors that shape the biosynthesis of key psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin. With many strains exhibiting substantial variability in their phenotypic characteristics and biochemical content, understanding and documenting this diversity is crucial for optimizing therapeutic applications. The review also highlights advances in cultivation techniques, such as submerged fermentation of the mycelium, and innovative analytical methodologies that have improved the precision of compound quantification and extraction. Although there is limited scientific information on P. cubensis due to nearly four decades of regulatory restrictions on psychedelic research, recent developments in genetic and biochemical studies are beginning to provide valuable insights into its therapeutic potential. Furthermore, this review emphasizes key knowledge gaps and offers insights into future research directions to advance the cultivation, scientific documentation of strain diversity, regulatory considerations and therapeutic use of P. cubensis.

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are priority disinfection by-products in drinking water, and their effective removal remains a persistent challenge for sustainable treatment. Here, olive mill solid waste (OMSW) was valorized into biochar (BC) and evaluated as a low-cost adsorbent for chloroform, bromodichloromethane (BDCM), chlorodibromomethane (CDBM), and bromoform under environmentally relevant conditions. Among the prepared materials, thermally activated BC (BC-T) performed best, achieving equilibrium removals of 74.7 ± 6.6% for chloroform, 91.1 ± 0.8% for BDCM, 87.2 ± 1.9% for CDBM, and 93.8 ± 0.3% for bromoform at 3000 mg/L. Adsorption increased with bromine substitution, following the order of bromoform > CDBM ≈ BDCM > chloroform, consistent with rising hydrophobicity. In contrast, KOH and Zn/Fe activation increased the BET surface area but did not improve THM removal, suggesting that adsorption was controlled by surface chemistry and site accessibility rather than surface area alone. Persulfate (PSF) addition reduced THM removal, indicating that oxidant activation did not compensate for the loss of adsorption capacity. Adsorption data were well described by the Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics. BC-T also maintained high removal efficiency in drinking water, demonstrating its promise as a practical polishing adsorbent for THM control and as a route for high-value valorization of an abundant agricultural residue.

Psilocybin-producing mushrooms exhibit considerable biochemical diversity, yet the extent of variability among strains within a single species under standardized conditions remains insufficiently characterized. In this study, we quantified psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, aeruginascin, and norpsilocin in the fruiting bodies of 14 distinct strains of Psilocybe cubensis. The mushroom strains were cultivated, dried, extracted, and analyzed under uniform laboratory conditions. Despite strict methodological standardization, total tryptamine concentrations varied by more than 7.8-fold among strains (from 2.62 to 20.65 mg/g), with psilocybin consistently emerging as the dominant compound. Analysis of individual fruiting bodies within the selected strains revealed substantial intra-strain variability, with coefficients of variation for psilocybin ranging from 12.81% to 23.39% between individual fruiting bodies. These findings demonstrate that both inter- and intra-strain biochemical heterogeneity persist even under controlled conditions, underscoring the challenges of standardizing whole mushroom preparations for research or therapeutic use. Our results highlight the importance of strain selection, rigorous chemical profiling, and dosing precision in future pharmacological and clinical applications of P. cubensis.