This study addresses the dynamic of viral load rebound and immune system changes in a cohort of eight consecutive HIV-1-infected patients in very early stages [all the patients were taking highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART} and were recruited in the coordinating center from a larger study] who decided to discontinue HAART after 1 year of treatment and effective virologic response. The safety of this procedure and the outcome with reintroduction of the same treatment was also investigated. Plasma, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and lymphatic tissue viral loads were measured at baseline; lymphocyte immunophenotyping and CD4 lymphocyte proliferative responses to mitogens and specific antigens were assessed. The same antiretroviral therapy was reintroduced as soon as plasma viral load became detectable (above 200copies/ml). At day 0, plasma viral load was below 20copies/ml in all eight patients (and below 5copies/ml in five of eight patients). A rebound in plasma viral load was detected in all patients from day 3 to day 31 with a mean doubling time of 2.01 (SE 0.29) days. Three out of eight patients achieved a peak plasma viral load at least 0.5log10 above baseline, pretreatment values. Mutations associated with resistance to reverse transcriptase or protease inhibitors were not detected. After 31 days off therapy, CD4 lymphocytes decreased [mean 45% (SE 4) to 37% (SE 3); P=0.04], CD8+CD28+ lymphocytes decreased [mean 59% (SE 5) to 43% (SE 4); P=0.03], and CD8+CD38+ lymphocytes increased [mean 55% (SE 3) to 66% (SE 4); P=0.009]. Mean stimulation indices of lymphocytes treated with phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and CD3 decreased from day 0 to day 31 from 34% (SE 8) to 17% (SE 9) (P=0.06) and from 24% (SE 8) to 5% (SE 2) (P=0.02), respectively. These changes were mainly contributed by the group of five patients with plasma viral load below 5copies/ml at day 0. Viral load dropped below 20copies/ml in all patients after 1 month of restarting the same antiretroviral regimen. Discontinuation of HAART after 1 year of successful treatment is followed by a rapid rebound of viral load; this rapidly returns to undetectable levels following reintroduction of the same treatment. In patients with more effective control of virus replication (viremia below 5copies/ml), discontinuation of treatment was associated with more severe impairment of immunologic parameters.

Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) greatly improves survival and quality of life of HIV-1–infected patients; however, cART must be continued indefinitely to prevent viral rebound and associated disease progression. Inducing HIV-1–specific immune responses with a therapeutic immunization has been proposed to control viral replication after discontinuation of cART as an alternative to “cART for life.” We report safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity results associated with a control of viral replication for a therapeutic vaccine using autologous monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MD-DCs) pulsed with autologous heat-inactivated whole HIV. Patients on cART with CD4⁺ >450 cells/mm³ were randomized to receive three immunizations with MD-DCs or with nonpulsed MD-DCs. Vaccination was feasible, safe, and well tolerated and shifted the virus/host balance. At weeks 12 and 24 after cART interruption, a decrease of plasma viral load setpoint ≥1 log was observed in 12 of 22 (55%) versus 1 of 11 (9%) and in 7 of 20 (35%) versus 0 of 10 (0%) patients in the DC–HIV-1 and DC-control groups, respectively. This significant decrease in plasma viral load observed in immunized recipients was associated with a consistent increase in HIV-1–specific T cell responses. These data suggest that HIV-1–specific immune responses elicited by therapeutic DC vaccines could significantly change plasma viral load setpoint after cART interruption in chronic HIV-1–infected patients treated in early stages. This proof of concept supports further investigation of new candidates and/or new optimized strategies of vaccination with the final objective of obtaining a functional cure as an alternative to cART for life.

Potent antiretroviral therapy (ART) suppresses HIV-1 viral replication and results in decreased morbidity and mortality. However, prolonged treatment is associated with drug-induced toxicity, emergence of drug-resistant viral strains, and financial constraints. Structured therapeutic interruptions (STIs) have been proposed as a strategy that could boost HIV-specific immunity, through controlled exposure to autologous virus over limited time periods, and subsequently control viral replication in the absence of ART. Here, we analyzed the impact of repeated STIs on virological and immunological parameters in a large prospective STI study. We show that: ( i ) the plateau virus load (VL) reached after STIs correlated with pretreatment VL, the amount of viral recrudescence during the treatment interruptions, and the off-treatment viral rebound rate; ( ii ) the magnitude and the breadth of the HIV-specific CD8 ⁺ T lymphocyte response, despite marked interpatient variability, increased overall with STI. However, the quantity and quality of the post-STI response was comparable to the response observed before any therapy; ( iii ) individuals with strong and broad HIV-specific CD8 ⁺ T lymphocyte responses at baseline retained these characteristics during and after STI; ( iv ) the increase in HIV-specific CD8 ⁺ T lymphocyte frequencies induced by STI was not correlated with decreased viral set point after STI; and ( v ) HIV-specific CD4 ⁺ T lymphocyte responses increased with STI, but were subsequently maintained only in patients with low pretreatment and plateau VLs. Overall, these data indicate that STI-induced quantitative boosting of HIV-specific cellular immunity was not associated with substantial change in viral replication and that STI was largely restoring pretherapy CD8 ⁺ T cell responses in patients with established infection.

The vaginal microbiota has importance in preserving vaginal health and defending the host against disease. The advent of new molecular techniques and computer science has allowed researchers to discover microbial composition in depth and associate the structure of vaginal microbial communities. There is a consensus that vaginal flora is grouped into a restricted number of communities, although the structure of the community is constantly changing. Certain Community-State Types (CSTs) are more associated with poor reproductive outcomes and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) meanwhile, CSTs dominated by Lactobacillus species—particularly Lactobacillus crispatus—are more related to vaginal health. In this work, we have reviewed how modifiable and non-modifiable factors may affect normal vaginal microbiota homeostasis—including sexual behavior, race or ethnicity, and hygiene. Special interest has been given to how the use of probiotics, diet intake, and use of hormone replacement therapies (HRTs) can potentially impact vaginal microbiota composition.

Current treatment guidelines for HIV infection recommend a relatively late initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Nevertheless, there is still a concern that immune recovery may not be as complete once CD4⁺ T cells have decreased below a certain threshold. This study addressed the long-term response of CD4⁺ T-cell counts in patients on HAART and analyzed the influence of baseline CD4⁺ T-cell counts, baseline viral load, and age. An observational analysis of evolution of CD4⁺ T cells in 861 antiretroviral therapy–naive chronic HIV-1–infected patients who started treatment consisting of at least 3 drugs in or after 1996 was performed. Patients were classified in 4 groups according to baseline CD4⁺ T cells: <200 cells/mm³, 200–349 cells/mm³, 350–499 cells/mm³, and ≥500 cells/mm³. The main outcome measures were proportion of patients with CD4⁺ T cells 500/mm³ at last determination and rate of CD4⁺ T-cell recovery. Patients were followed-up for a median of 173 weeks (interquartile range [IQR], 100–234). There were no differences in follow-up between the 4 groups. CD4⁺ T cells increased in the whole cohort from a median of 214 cells/mm³ (IQR, 90–355) to 499 cells/mm³ (IQR, 312–733) (P < 0.001). Compared with the group with a baseline CD4⁺ T-cell count of ≥500/mm³, the relative risk of having a last determination of CD4⁺ T-cell counts >200 cells/mm³ was 0.79 (95% CI, 0.75–0.83), 0.92 (95% CI, 0.89–0.96) and 1 for baseline CD4⁺ T cells 500 cells/mm³ was 0.32 (95% CI, 0.27–0.39, P < 0.001), 0.69 (95% CI, 0.60–0.79, P < 0.001), and 0.94 (95% CI, 0.83–1.06, P = 0.38) for baseline CD4⁺ T-cell counts <200 cells/mm³, 200–349 cells/mm³, and 350–499 cells/mm³, respectively, compared with a baseline CD4⁺ T-cell count of ≥500 cells/mm³. The increase in CD4⁺ T cells from baseline was statistically significant and was maintained for up to 4 years of follow-up. This increase seemed to slow down after approximately 3 years and reached a plateau after 4–5 years of follow-up even in patients who achieved and maintained viral suppression in plasma. Long-term immune recovery is possible regardless of baseline CD4⁺ T-cell count. However, patients who start therapy with a CD4⁺ T-cell count <200 cells/mm³ have poorer immunologic outcome as measured by the proportion of patients with CD4⁺ T cells 500/mm³ at last determination. It seems that the immune recovery slows down after approximately 3 years of HAART and reaches a plateau after 4–5 years of HAART.