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Prof. Johan Verbeek
Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

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0 Recycling
0 circular economy
0 Sustainable Materials
0 Bio-based materials

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Reactive extrusion
Biodegradation
Thermoplastic composites

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Chapter
Published: 02 October 2020 in Reactive and Functional Polymers Volume Two
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A general awareness of the environmental impacts of plastics has caused behavioral changes in the public sector. This in turn has led to research related to biodegradable or sustainable alternatives to petrochemical plastics. Biodegradable polymers have been around for years (e.g. poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA)). However, these have recently become an affordable alternative. PLA and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) are two polyesters that have gained significant research interest as biodegradable alternatives, especially for the preparation of natural or biobased polymer blends. Nonetheless, the lack of miscibility in some polymer blends limits their usefulness unless a compatibilizing agent is used. A very common strategy is to graft a functional monomer into the polymer backbone, of which maleic anhydride (MA) is the most common, but not the only one. This chapter explores the use of grafting functional groups onto polyesters in light of the well-established field of free radical grafting of polyolefins to achieve materials that are effective at compatibilizing biodegradable or compostable blends.

ACS Style

Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Chanelle Gavin. Grafting Functional Groups onto Biodegradable Thermoplastic Polyesters. Reactive and Functional Polymers Volume Two 2020, 245 -281.

AMA Style

Casparus J. R. Verbeek, Chanelle Gavin. Grafting Functional Groups onto Biodegradable Thermoplastic Polyesters. Reactive and Functional Polymers Volume Two. 2020; ():245-281.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Chanelle Gavin. 2020. "Grafting Functional Groups onto Biodegradable Thermoplastic Polyesters." Reactive and Functional Polymers Volume Two , no. : 245-281.

Article
Published: 16 May 2019 in Journal of Polymer Science
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Novatein is a thermoplastic polymer made from blood meal proteins, but it has rheological properties very different from commodity thermoplastics. Capillary rheometry revealed an apparent time dependent shear viscosity for Novatein, evident from a decreasing pressure drop over time, measured at constant shear rate. However, blending with polybutylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate (PBAT) reduced the time dependence for uncompatibilized blends and virtually eliminated time dependence for compatibilized blends containing 30 wt % PBAT. Novatein's extensional viscosity is three orders of magnitude more than its shear viscosity and explained the difficulty in sheet extrusion. In contrast, 30% compatibilized blends had an extensional viscosity similar to neat PBAT and was also the only blend that could be successfully sheet extruded. Although uncompatibilized blends at the same or lower PBAT content also had a lower extensional viscosity, they could not be sheet extruded and the difference was the 30% compatibilized blends had a fine PBAT phase structure (co‐continuous in this case), which was sufficiently adhered to the Novatein phase. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47977.

ACS Style

Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Matthew J. Smith; Wade C. Cozens. Rheology and sheet extrusion of Novatein thermoplastic protein/polybutylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate blends. Journal of Polymer Science 2019, 136, 1 .

AMA Style

Casparus J.R. Verbeek, Matthew J. Smith, Wade C. Cozens. Rheology and sheet extrusion of Novatein thermoplastic protein/polybutylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate blends. Journal of Polymer Science. 2019; 136 (38):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Matthew J. Smith; Wade C. Cozens. 2019. "Rheology and sheet extrusion of Novatein thermoplastic protein/polybutylene adipate‐co‐terephthalate blends." Journal of Polymer Science 136, no. 38: 1.

Journal article
Published: 22 April 2019 in Polymer Testing
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Thermal analysis can generally be applied to protein-based thermoplastics although standard protein analysis techniques are not always possible to assess chain architecture. Blood (17% protein) from the meat industry can be fractionated or dried to blood meal, which can be converted to a thermoplastic called Novatein. The objective of this paper was to use a consistent methodology to compare different protein fractions from blood to that of blood meal, as well as the plastic produced from it, and how these changes relate to processing protein-based. Thermal properties were similar between protein fractions, but there were differences in chain conformation between blood meal, the haem containing fractions (red blood cells and spray dried haemoglobin) and the non-haem fractions (plasma and serum albumin). Blood meal is therefore best considered a single polymer, rather than the sum of its individual fractions. Thermoplastic processing reduces protein aggregation, and this phenomenon is more important than the behaviour of any of the individual proteins.

ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay; James M. Bier; Talia Hicks. Thermal analysis and secondary structure of protein fractions in a highly aggregated protein material. Polymer Testing 2019, 77, 105876 .

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Casparus J.R. Verbeek, Mark C. Lay, James M. Bier, Talia Hicks. Thermal analysis and secondary structure of protein fractions in a highly aggregated protein material. Polymer Testing. 2019; 77 ():105876.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay; James M. Bier; Talia Hicks. 2019. "Thermal analysis and secondary structure of protein fractions in a highly aggregated protein material." Polymer Testing 77, no. : 105876.

Article
Published: 03 April 2019 in Journal of Polymer Science
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Protein thermoplastics, like Novatein, typically comprise a polymer, additives, and plasticizers. During foaming, the plasticizers performed different functions; triethylene glycol (TEG) affected the Tg of the polymer, while water altered the shear viscosity and urea the extensional viscosity. Water and urea also functioned as blowing agents; increasing urea increased the expansion ratio, while an increase in TEG and water decreased it. It was concluded that at this level of plasticization, phase separation occurred and that the plasticizers are most influential during late bubble growth and stabilization. Contrary to previous thought, increasing water had no effect on the Tg, but did lower the shear viscosity, while increasing TEG had the opposite effect. This enables the properties of protein thermoplastics to be tailored during development. During foaming, lower viscosity allows more time for gases to diffuse before the viscosity in the surrounding polymer increases, restricting bubble growth. At higher TEG content, the material is processed further above its Tg, slowing down stabilization and decreasing expansion. This study clarified the role of plasticizers during foaming and showed a decrease in random coils and β‐turns (measured by FT‐IR) with increasing expansion ratio. Knowledge of these mechanisms enables tailoring properties of protein thermoplastics foams during development. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47781.

ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. The role of plasticizers during protein thermoplastic foaming. Journal of Polymer Science 2019, 136, 1 .

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Casparus J. R. Verbeek, Mark C. Lay. The role of plasticizers during protein thermoplastic foaming. Journal of Polymer Science. 2019; 136 (30):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. 2019. "The role of plasticizers during protein thermoplastic foaming." Journal of Polymer Science 136, no. 30: 1.

Journal article
Published: 13 March 2019 in Polymer Testing
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The glass transition behaviour of a highly aggregated protein-based material (Novatein) was studied using dynamic mechanical analysis. Novatein was plasticized with up to 40 parts of tri(ethylene glycol) and glycerol and equilibrated at four different relative humidities. Phase separation was found to play a significant role in determining material properties due to the low saturation point of Novatein. The Couchman-Karasz model was used to determine the composition of each phase and tri(ethylene glycol)led to a greater proportion of an intermediate Tg phase compared to glycerol. The role of the intermediate phase was crucial in terms of total plasticization where water is needed for good compatibility between the plasticizer and protein. The constraint theory provided a unifying model for understanding the phase behaviour, assuming the different phases are ideally mixed. Using the point of equivalence approach differentiated between primary and secondary plasticization, representing plasticization based on plasticizer content alone.

ACS Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J.R. Verbeek. The role of phase separation in determining the glass transition behaviour of thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Polymer Testing 2019, 76, 119 -126.

AMA Style

Jussi M. Uitto, Casparus J.R. Verbeek. The role of phase separation in determining the glass transition behaviour of thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Polymer Testing. 2019; 76 ():119-126.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J.R. Verbeek. 2019. "The role of phase separation in determining the glass transition behaviour of thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics." Polymer Testing 76, no. : 119-126.

Journal article
Published: 19 December 2018 in Recent Patents on Materials Science
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A major drawback of some polymers is their low impact resistance and ability to absorb energy during fracture, such as PS, PMMA and PVC. Several techniques are used to toughen or modify impact resistance of brittle polymers, including reinforcement such as fibers and particles, or the incorporation of an elastomeric second phase. Whilst synthetic polymers can provide desirable properties for a wide variety of applications, there is a large environmental impact associated to those produced through petrochemical routes. Hence, in recent decades, much emphasis has been placed on polymer systems from renewable resources, as well as those able to undergo biodegradation due to enzymes and microbes. Blending of biopolymers is an area of high interest due to the promise shown in these materials and the potential for the replacement of petrochemical based polymers, although the ability of these materials to absorb high levels of energy during fracture, whilst maintaining other acceptable mechanical properties, remains an issue. This paper presents a review of polymer blending, morphology development and impact strength modification, linking these topics to the formation of toughened biopolymer materials and blends.

ACS Style

Matthew Smith; Matthew Smith And Casparus Verbeek. Energy Absorption Mechanisms and Impact Strength Modification in Multiphase Biopolymer Systems. Recent Patents on Materials Science 2018, 11, 2 -18.

AMA Style

Matthew Smith, Matthew Smith And Casparus Verbeek. Energy Absorption Mechanisms and Impact Strength Modification in Multiphase Biopolymer Systems. Recent Patents on Materials Science. 2018; 11 (1):2-18.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew Smith; Matthew Smith And Casparus Verbeek. 2018. "Energy Absorption Mechanisms and Impact Strength Modification in Multiphase Biopolymer Systems." Recent Patents on Materials Science 11, no. 1: 2-18.

Short communication
Published: 28 October 2018 in Polymer Testing
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FT-IR analysis was used to study the effect of temperature on foaming Novatein, a semi-crystalline thermoplastic biopolymer based on blood meal. Foaming was caused by rapid expansion of steam, ammonia and CO2 from urea hydrolysis, leading to expansion ratios between 3.8 and 5.6. Plasticisers were more concentrated near the bubble surface, suggesting some tri-ethylene glycol accumulation. The β-sheet fraction in Novatein was not influenced by foaming or thermal treatment, but their distribution was influenced by bubble growth. β-sheets agglomerated near the bubble surface and was more pronounced at higher temperatures.

ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. Formation of secondary structures in protein foams as detected by synchrotron FT-IR. Polymer Testing 2018, 73, 82 -86.

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Casparus J.R. Verbeek, Mark C. Lay. Formation of secondary structures in protein foams as detected by synchrotron FT-IR. Polymer Testing. 2018; 73 ():82-86.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. 2018. "Formation of secondary structures in protein foams as detected by synchrotron FT-IR." Polymer Testing 73, no. : 82-86.

Article
Published: 25 August 2018 in Journal of Polymer Science
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Blood meal‐based thermoplastic protein (Novatein) is made from a highly aggregated protein network, and as a result, water plays a significant role during plasticization. Novatein was plasticized with up to 40 parts tri(ethylene glycol) or glycerol and equilibrated at different relative humidities. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) was the dominant factor determining mechanical properties, with a brittle to ductile transformation observed at 8% EMC. However, EMC was not sufficient to explain this behavior and the point of equivalence (POE) was introduced to differentiate between primary and secondary plasticization. It was shown that the constraint theory, which relates to hydrogen bonding plasticizers, was more applicable below the POE whereas the free volume theory, and the formation of the microscale phase separation, described material behavior above the POE. Water played a critical role improving ideal mixing conditions in the material and was also related to the brittle‐to‐ductile transition. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46746.

ACS Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. The role of water in plasticizing thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Journal of Polymer Science 2018, 135, 1 .

AMA Style

Jussi M. Uitto, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. The role of water in plasticizing thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Journal of Polymer Science. 2018; 135 (41):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2018. "The role of water in plasticizing thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics." Journal of Polymer Science 135, no. 41: 1.

Journal article
Published: 01 August 2018 in Applied Mechanics and Materials
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Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) was modified through free radical grafting of itaconic anhydride to create reactive side-chain groups. Modified PLA was blended with Decoloured Novatein®(DNTP), a thermoplastic protein material using reactive extrusion to produce a degradable material with improved properties compared to neat Decoloured Novatein®. Varying ratios of blends were prepared. Blending DNTP with PLA was found to increase tensile strength between 22% to 538% and modulus between 201 GPa to 3193 GPa, whereas the strain at break decreased between 80% to 94% depending on the blend ratio. The glass transition temperature of the blends which was measured as the tan δ peak, also revealed an increase when compared to neat DNTP. Scanning electron microscope revealed an enhanced interfacial adhesion between the two phases in the blends with PLA-g-IA suggesting a more homogenous microstructure. The results show the possibility and feasibility of blending DNTP with PLA for use in agricultural and packaging applications.

ACS Style

Sandra C.P. Izuchukwu; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; James Micheal Bier. Decoloured Novatein® and PLA Blends Compatibilized with Itaconic Anhydride. Applied Mechanics and Materials 2018, 884, 3 -13.

AMA Style

Sandra C.P. Izuchukwu, Casparus J.R. Verbeek, James Micheal Bier. Decoloured Novatein® and PLA Blends Compatibilized with Itaconic Anhydride. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2018; 884 ():3-13.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sandra C.P. Izuchukwu; Casparus J.R. Verbeek; James Micheal Bier. 2018. "Decoloured Novatein® and PLA Blends Compatibilized with Itaconic Anhydride." Applied Mechanics and Materials 884, no. : 3-13.

Polymers
Published: 30 July 2018 in Journal of Materials Science
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Novatein® is a patented thermoplastic biopolymer produced from denatured haemoglobin and serum albumin proteins, in blood meal. This material is biodegradable after processing, and when foamed could provide an alternative to expanded polystyrene and polyurethane for short-term applications such as packaging. This study aims to investigate the effect of processing temperature on foam density and morphology and how these properties effect compression behaviour. Unconstrained rapid expansion produced a range of foam densities, 0.28–0.45 g/cm3, which were strongly dependant on temperature. The foams had compressive strengths between 200 and 600 kPa and an elastic moduli between 2.2 and 8 MPa. Under compression, high-density foams behaved like traditional plastic foams, while at low density they behaved more elastomeric. Models for open and closed cells successfully predicted the compression modulus and strength in the linear elastic region. The foams demonstrated a mixed mode morphology (open and closed cells) and an irregular distribution of cells, which explained the deviation from the models.

ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. Morphology and compressive behaviour of foams produced from thermoplastic protein. Journal of Materials Science 2018, 53, 15703 -15716.

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Casparus J. R. Verbeek, Mark C. Lay. Morphology and compressive behaviour of foams produced from thermoplastic protein. Journal of Materials Science. 2018; 53 (22):15703-15716.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Casparus J. R. Verbeek; Mark C. Lay. 2018. "Morphology and compressive behaviour of foams produced from thermoplastic protein." Journal of Materials Science 53, no. 22: 15703-15716.

Journal article
Published: 27 April 2018 in International Polymer Processing
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Blends between Novatein thermoplastic protein and polylactic acid (PLA) have been prepared by reactive extrusion using itaconic anhydride grafted PLA. At equal proportions of Novatein and PLA, the absence of a compatibilizer formed a dispersed phase morphology of Novatein in PLA and the incorporation of compatibilizer formed a co-continuous morphology. Incorporating PLA in Novatein can improve the tensile strength of Novatein by 42% and the impact strength by 36% at an equal proportion blend (50/50) in the presence of a compatibilizer. Thermal analysis revealed that 50/50 was the phase inversion point, above and below this composition the material behaved similarly. The effect of compatibilizer was evident in wide-angle X-ray scattering. In the absence of compatibilizer three phases were detected: crystalline Novatein, amorphous Novatein, and amorphous PLA phases. With compatibilizer, the blend was moving towards two phases: crystalline Novatein, and an amorphous blend of Novatein and PLA. Itaconic anhydride grafted PLA improved miscibility between Novatein and PLA, and its use can potentially lead to the production of Novatein/PLA foams.

ACS Style

A. S. Walallavita; C. J. R. Verbeek; M. C. Lay. Morphology and Mechanical Properties of Itaconic Anhydride Grafted Poly(lactic acid) and Thermoplastic Protein Blends. International Polymer Processing 2018, 33, 153 -163.

AMA Style

A. S. Walallavita, C. J. R. Verbeek, M. C. Lay. Morphology and Mechanical Properties of Itaconic Anhydride Grafted Poly(lactic acid) and Thermoplastic Protein Blends. International Polymer Processing. 2018; 33 (2):153-163.

Chicago/Turabian Style

A. S. Walallavita; C. J. R. Verbeek; M. C. Lay. 2018. "Morphology and Mechanical Properties of Itaconic Anhydride Grafted Poly(lactic acid) and Thermoplastic Protein Blends." International Polymer Processing 33, no. 2: 153-163.

Journal article
Published: 27 April 2018 in International Polymer Processing
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Mechanical properties of Novatein thermoplastic protein compounded at different extrusion temperatures and processing water contents have been examined in a factorial experiment. Thermoplastic proteins are moisture sensitive and can be prone to thermal degradation during processing. Processing water was varied between 30 and 45 parts per hundred parts bloodmeal while the extrusion temperature was varied between 120 and 150 °C to identify a processing window suitable for process scale up. To resolve any effects processing water had on protein-protein interactions from its plasticising effect, injection molded specimens were mechanically tested both as molded and after conditioning at controlled temperature and humidity. Despite all conditioned samples having approximately the same moisture content, mechanical properties were different. Tensile strength and modulus decreased with increasing processing water at the same equilibrium moisture content. DMA and WAXS suggested this was due to changes in chain mobility within the amorphous phase of the material, rather than conformational change towards a more ordered state. Properties of unconditioned specimens were mostly dependent on the plasticising effect of different amounts of processing water remaining in the material after injection molding. Extrusion temperature had very little effect on mechanical properties, suggesting that Novatein is robust enough to handle some temperature variations during processes such as injection molding.

ACS Style

C. J. R. Verbeek; S. C. P. Izuchukwu; J. M. Bier. The Role of Extrusion Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic Protein. International Polymer Processing 2018, 33, 180 -190.

AMA Style

C. J. R. Verbeek, S. C. P. Izuchukwu, J. M. Bier. The Role of Extrusion Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic Protein. International Polymer Processing. 2018; 33 (2):180-190.

Chicago/Turabian Style

C. J. R. Verbeek; S. C. P. Izuchukwu; J. M. Bier. 2018. "The Role of Extrusion Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic Protein." International Polymer Processing 33, no. 2: 180-190.

Article
Published: 08 March 2018 in Advances in Polymer Technology
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Blood meal-based thermoplastic protein (Novatein) was plasticized with up to 40 parts ethylene glycol, glycerol, propylene glycol, or tri(ethylene glycol) per hundred parts blood meal. The effect of plasticizers was investigated by relating the effect of equilibrium moisture content, phase separation, and protein secondary structure to the glass transition temperature and the mechanical properties. Plasticizers can diffuse through the polymer network and either be part of a protein-rich phase where primary plasticization dominates or a plasticizer-rich phase where secondary plasticization dominates. Equilibrium moisture content and added theoretical hydrogen bonding sites had the strongest correlation with the results. The point at which the equilibrium moisture content reached an equivalent moisture content (POE) to that of compositions without a plasticizer was found to be a critical point at which plasticization changes from primary to secondary, with a corresponding change in mechanical properties from brittle to ductile.

ACS Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Phase separation of plasticizers in thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Advances in Polymer Technology 2018, 37, 2922 -2935.

AMA Style

Jussi M. Uitto, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Phase separation of plasticizers in thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics. Advances in Polymer Technology. 2018; 37 (8):2922-2935.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jussi M. Uitto; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2018. "Phase separation of plasticizers in thermally aggregated protein-based thermoplastics." Advances in Polymer Technology 37, no. 8: 2922-2935.

Journal article
Published: 01 December 2017 in Journal of Applied Polymer Science
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ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Mark C. Lay; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Conformational changes after foaming in a protein-based thermoplastic. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2017, 135, 1 .

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Mark C. Lay, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Conformational changes after foaming in a protein-based thermoplastic. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2017; 135 (13):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Mark C. Lay; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "Conformational changes after foaming in a protein-based thermoplastic." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 135, no. 13: 1.

Article
Published: 13 November 2017 in Advances in Polymer Technology
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Novatein thermoplastic protein was blended with 10 wt% poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) compatibilized with Joncryl ADR-4368 and 2-methylimidazole (2MI). Morphology was tailored for favorable impact strength through changing viscosity ratio (λ) and interfacial tension (γ12). For uncompatibilized blends, λ decreased and γ12 increased with increasing Novatein water content, whereas compatibilizers caused a decrease in both λ and γ12. PBAT continuity was high when uncompatibilized, but dispersion improved with decreasing λ and increasing γ12. The dispersed domain size decreased in all compatibilized blends; PBAT continuity was lowest in samples with the smallest λ. Compatibilized blends had higher impact strength than Novatein and uncompatibilized blends through improved interfacial adhesion, smaller domain size, and increased dispersion. By altering λ and γ12, and with appropriate chemical interaction, a morphology can be created for improved impact strength. Increasing PBAT content showed further increases in impact strength; however, a cocontinuous morphology formed, demonstrating that composition can override the effect of λ and γ12.

ACS Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Manipulating morphology in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends for improved impact strength. Advances in Polymer Technology 2017, 37, 2354 -2366.

AMA Style

Matthew J. Smith, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Manipulating morphology in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends for improved impact strength. Advances in Polymer Technology. 2017; 37 (6):2354-2366.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "Manipulating morphology in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends for improved impact strength." Advances in Polymer Technology 37, no. 6: 2354-2366.

Article
Published: 24 October 2017 in Polymer Engineering & Science
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Novatein thermoplastic protein embrittles quickly after processing due to desorption of plasticizer, leading to poor energy absorbing properties such as impact strength. However, impact modified Novatein blends, containing functionalized polyethylene or nano-scale core-shell particles exhibit increased energy absorbing properties. The phase distribution of reinforced blends, and the protein secondary structure changes as a result of blending and fracture was investigated using synchrotron FT-IR microspectroscopy. Morphological changes in Novatein/polyethylene blends were responsible for variations in mechanical properties, rather than changes in secondary structure. In contrast, a greater impact strength was correlated to an increase of disordered secondary structures in core-shell particle reinforced Novatein. Blends which exhibited greater elongation or yielding during fracture showed a significant difference between protein secondary structure in the bulk matrix and the yielded material after fracture. It was concluded that the change in conformation of protein structures during fracture is an energy absorbing mechanism that acts in conjunction with the free elongation of the matrix due to decreasing interparticle distance for materials reinforced with nano-particles. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2017. © 2017 Society of Plastics Engineers

ACS Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Structural changes and energy absorption mechanisms during fracture of thermoplastic protein blends using synchrotron FTIR. Polymer Engineering & Science 2017, 58, E124 -E134.

AMA Style

Matthew J. Smith, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Structural changes and energy absorption mechanisms during fracture of thermoplastic protein blends using synchrotron FTIR. Polymer Engineering & Science. 2017; 58 (S1):E124-E134.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "Structural changes and energy absorption mechanisms during fracture of thermoplastic protein blends using synchrotron FTIR." Polymer Engineering & Science 58, no. S1: E124-E134.

Article
Published: 05 October 2017 in Journal of Applied Polymer Science
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Novatein thermoplastic protein was extrusion blended with poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) in the presence of dual compatibilizers to produce blends with greater energy absorbing properties than pure Novatein. Compatibilizer pairs were Joncryl ADR-4368 (glycidyl methacrylate-functionalized) with 2-methylimidazole (2MI), and poly-2-ethyl-2-oxazoline (PEOX) with polymeric diphenyl methane diisocyanate (pMDI). Uncompatibilized Novatein/PBAT blends had decreased tensile mechanical properties, attributed to phase separation, and poor interfacial adhesion. PBAT became finely dispersed in both compatibilized systems, but PEOX/pMDI blends showed embrittlement and large Novatein domains, which acted as stress concentrations. Tensile strength and elongation at break for Joncryl/2MI blends did not decrease compared with Novatein, even at 10 wt % PBAT, and impact strength increased threefold. Dynamic mechanical analysis and solvent extraction showed that PBAT coalesced in all systems, at compositions as low as 2 wt %. It was concluded that using Joncryl/2MI as a dual compatibilizer system can successfully produce a morphology that enhances energy absorption during fracture. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017, 134, 45808.

ACS Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Compatibilization effects in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2017, 135, 45808 .

AMA Style

Matthew J. Smith, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Compatibilization effects in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2017; 135 (6):45808.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "Compatibilization effects in thermoplastic protein/polyester blends." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 135, no. 6: 45808.

Article
Published: 16 July 2017 in Advances in Polymer Technology
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Bloodmeal is a protein-rich coproduct of the meat industry and can be converted into a thermoplastic. A solution of peracetic acid can be used to degrade colored compounds in bloodmeal, yielding a light yellow material. This causes an increase in β-sheets in the protein's secondary structure, but the addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and triethylene glycol (TEG) reduced α-helical and β-sheet content, thereby increasing random coils. Without SDS, chains were less capable of folding into these structures, preventing sufficient intermolecular interactions and chain entanglement, leading to low specific mechanical energy input (SME) during extrusion, and poor consolidation. The whiteness of molded samples showed no correlation with SME during extrusion or the degree of consolidation after extrusion; however, they were observed to have a higher level of whiteness with increasing TEG content and should be considered as a secondary process not directly linked to extrusion. Increasing the amount of water during extrusion increased the Young's modulus (E) by facilitating formation of new interactions, while increasing TEG decreased E as a result of plasticization. The action of SDS on destabilizing electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions was beneficial to extrusion, although it had no further effect during injection molding. TEG had virtually no effect on tensile strength, although it was required for flow and facilitated the formation of strong interactions after water had been evaporated during conditioning.

ACS Style

Casparus Johannes Reinhard Verbeek; Aaron Low; Mark Christopher Lay; Talia Hicks. Processability and mechanical properties of bioplastics produced from decoloured bloodmeal. Advances in Polymer Technology 2017, 37, 2102 -2113.

AMA Style

Casparus Johannes Reinhard Verbeek, Aaron Low, Mark Christopher Lay, Talia Hicks. Processability and mechanical properties of bioplastics produced from decoloured bloodmeal. Advances in Polymer Technology. 2017; 37 (6):2102-2113.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Casparus Johannes Reinhard Verbeek; Aaron Low; Mark Christopher Lay; Talia Hicks. 2017. "Processability and mechanical properties of bioplastics produced from decoloured bloodmeal." Advances in Polymer Technology 37, no. 6: 2102-2113.

Research article
Published: 07 June 2017 in Advances in Polymer Technology
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Novatein thermoplastic protein was blended with modified polyethylene (containing either epoxy, carboxylic acid functionalities partially neutralised to produce zinc carboxylate salts, or maleic anhydride functionalities) to alter blend morphology and to manipulate thermal and mechanical properties. Up to 40 pphNovatein polyethylene (PE) was blended with Novatein by extrusion and injection moulding. Using zinc ionomer resulted in optimal properties and was compatible with a finely dispersed morphology at high content; high interfacial tension (σ) and a viscosity ratio (λ) of ~1 was observed. Unmodified blends and those containing epoxy functionalities showed co‐continuity at low PE content. Whilst co‐continuity appeared to increase impact resistance, other mechanical properties decreased due to lack of phase interaction. Maleic anhydride‐grafted‐polyethylene blends showed a finely dispersed PE phase, yet was less compatible. Zinc ionomer was deemed to be the most appropriate for modification of mechanical properties in Novatein.

ACS Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. The relationship between morphology development and mechanical properties in thermoplastic protein blends. Advances in Polymer Technology 2017, 37, 1886 -1896.

AMA Style

Matthew J. Smith, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. The relationship between morphology development and mechanical properties in thermoplastic protein blends. Advances in Polymer Technology. 2017; 37 (6):1886-1896.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew J. Smith; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "The relationship between morphology development and mechanical properties in thermoplastic protein blends." Advances in Polymer Technology 37, no. 6: 1886-1896.

Conference paper
Published: 01 January 2017 in PROCEEDINGS OF PPS-32: The 32nd International Conference of the Polymer Processing Society - Conference Papers
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Novatein® thermoplastic protein (NTP), a bloodmeal based thermoplastic, was successfully foamed without blowing agent or blending with other polymers using a BOY-35A injection moulder in free expansion mode. Previously, only soy protein has been successfully continuously foamed and zein and gluten batch foamed without blending or rheological modification. The greatest expansion ratio for NTP was 4.4 at 165°C. Blending NTP with compatibilised LLDPE and LDPE and adding blowing agent reduced expansion ratios. The foams exhibited a fibrous nature, with cell structures similar to those reported in literature for extrusion foamed thermoplastic soy protein isolate. SEM pictures suggested a possible role of either sodium sulphite, sodium dodecyl sulphate or sodium sulphate as a nucleating agent as particulates were found on the cell surfaces. Triethylene glycol and urea were thought to contribute to NTP foaming, along with water present in NTP, with two or more acting as the blowing agent.

ACS Style

Chanelle Gavin; Mark C. Lay; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Foaming behavior of novatein and blends with polyethylene compatibilised by maleic anhydride. PROCEEDINGS OF PPS-32: The 32nd International Conference of the Polymer Processing Society - Conference Papers 2017, 1 .

AMA Style

Chanelle Gavin, Mark C. Lay, Casparus J. R. Verbeek. Foaming behavior of novatein and blends with polyethylene compatibilised by maleic anhydride. PROCEEDINGS OF PPS-32: The 32nd International Conference of the Polymer Processing Society - Conference Papers. 2017; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chanelle Gavin; Mark C. Lay; Casparus J. R. Verbeek. 2017. "Foaming behavior of novatein and blends with polyethylene compatibilised by maleic anhydride." PROCEEDINGS OF PPS-32: The 32nd International Conference of the Polymer Processing Society - Conference Papers , no. : 1.