In this work, we present an ecofriendly, non-hazardous, green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) by leaf extract of Crotalaria verrucosa (C. verrucosa). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid and total protein contents of C. verrucosa were determined. Further, synthesized ZnO NPs was characterized by UV–visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) Spectra, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis. UV-vis shows peak at 375 nm which is unique to ZnO NPs. XRD analysis demonstrates the hexagonal phase structures of ZnO NPs. FTIR spectra demonstrates the molecules and bondings associated with the synthesized ZnO NPs and assures the role of phytochemical compounds of C. verrucosa in reduction and capping of ZnO NPs. TEM image exhibits that the prepared ZnO NPs is hexagonal shaped and in size ranged between 16 to 38 nm which is confirmed by DLS. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed to determine the thermal stability of biosynthesized nanoparticles during calcination. The prepared ZnO NPs showed significant antibacterial potentiality against Gram-positive (S. aureus) and Gram-negative (Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli) pathogenic bacteria and SEM image shows the generalized mechanism of action in bacterial cell after NPs internalization. In addition, NPs are also found to be effective against the studied cancer cell lines for which cytotoxicity was assessed using MTT assay and results demonstrate highest growth of inhibition at the concentration of 100 µg/mL with IC₅₀ value at 7.07 µg/mL for HeLa and 6.30 µg/mL for DU145 cell lines, in contrast to positive control (C. verrucosa leaf extract) with IC₅₀ of 22.30 µg/mL on HeLa cells and 15.72 µg/mL on DU145 cells. Also, DAPI staining was performed in order to determine the effect on nuclear material due to ZnO NPs treatment in the studied cell lines taking leaf extract as positive control and untreated negative control for comparison. Cell migration assay was evaluated to determine the direct influence of NPs on metastasis that is potential suppression capacity of NPs to tumor cell migration. Outcome of the synthesized ZnO NPs using C. verrucosa shows antimicrobial activity against studied microbes, also cytotoxicity, apoptotic mediated DNA damage and antiproliferative potentiality in the studied carcinoma cells and hence, can be further used in biomedical, pharmaceutical and food processing industries as an effective antimicrobial and anti-cancerous agent.

Cancer is caused by genetic changes controlling cell progression and differentiation. These changes are unregulated when tumours advance and acquire invasive and metastatic capacities due to the innate biologic characteristics of the cancer cell. In vivo and in vitro models show that these molecular changes are crucial for tumour development and survival. These molecular changes can be used to develop pristine cancer treatments. New methodological molecules are being developed to identify cancer-specific modifications in proteins, DNA, and RNA, as well as molecular distinctions between healthy and cancer cells. This approach enables effective early detection, precise diagnosis, and quick cancer therapy. DNA microarray techniques have been developed for identifying cancer-associated mutations and gene profiles. Molecular cancer diagnostics need improvement alongside advances in genomics, precision medicine, and immunotherapy. This chapter discusses different molecular diagnostics in the evaluation of cancers.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a biologically heterogeneous mature B-cell neoplasm whose classification, prognosis, and therapy have been reshaped by advances in genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, single-cell, and spatial profiling technologies. This review focuses on how these approaches have refined the molecular landscape of DLBCL, including recurrent chromosomal translocations, tumor-suppressor alterations, oncogenic signaling pathways, and tumor-microenvironment programs. Cell-of-origin (COO) frameworks remain clinically useful. However, contemporary models extend beyond conventional germinal center categories by incorporating probabilistic genetic subtypes, expression-defined high-risk states, and spatially resolved lymphoma-cell and immune-cell ecosystems. These high-resolution methods clarify intratumoral heterogeneity, identify biologically distinct subgroups, and inform prognosis and therapeutic selection. The review also summarizes how tumor-intrinsic biology and the tumor-microenvironment (TME) shape responses to frontline therapy, targeted agents, antibody-drug conjugates, bispecific antibodies, and CD19-directed CAR T-cell therapy. Particular emphasis is placed on product-specific evidence in relapsed/refractory disease, rational sequencing of immunotherapies, and emerging biomarkers such as circulating tumor DNA-based measurable residual disease (ctDNA-MRD). Together, these developments support a shift from COO-centric classification toward dynamic, biology-driven models that incorporate tumor-intrinsic and microenvironmental determinants to guide personalized therapy in DLBCL.