Urban gardens, including family allotment gardens (FAGs) and community gardens (CGs), play an increasingly important role in urban resilience to climate change—particularly through the delivery of regulatory ecosystem services. They occupy as much as 2.6% of Warsaw’s land area and thus have a tangible impact on the entire metropolitan system. These gardens are used in different ways, and each use affects the magnitude of the provided ecosystem services. This preliminary study explores how different types of allotment garden uses affect biodiversity and ecosystem services, addressing a critical knowledge gap in the classification and ecological functioning of urban gardens. We surveyed 44 plots in Warsaw, categorizing them into five vegetation use types: turf, flower, vegetable, orchard, and abandoned. For each plot, we assessed the floristic diversity, vegetation structure (leaf area index, LAI), and six regulatory services: air and soil cooling, water retention, humidity regulation, PM 2.5 retention, and nectar provision. Flower gardens had the highest species diversity (Shannon index = 1.93), while turf gardens had the lowest (1.43) but the highest proportion of native species (92%). Abandoned plots stood out due to the densest vegetation (LAI = 4.93) and ecological distinctiveness. Principal component analysis showed that the selected ecosystem services explained 25% of the variation in vegetation types. We propose a use-based classification of urban gardens and highlight abandoned plots as a functionally unique and overlooked ecological category.

Landscape conservation requires the system-level understanding of the natural world and the human environment, making a paradigm shift in three levels: shift in geographic scale where site specific arbitrary boundaries are abandoned to maintain biodiversity and climate resilience, shift in perspectives to define the landscape as a whole with all types of land uses, habitats, urban and rural areas in an integrative manner, and shift in the conservation process based on collaborative governance structures and community participation. In urban areas with mainly grey infrastructures and very limited green areas the ecosystems are deficient, since natural producers and decomposers are missing, reduced, or altered. Thus, introducing the concepts of multifunctionality in land use and urban agriculture are vital for sustainable and re-silient circular economies. A new urban metabolism model has been developed to serve as a tool for urban planning, taking into consideration all relevant processes of land use and changes in land use, production, consumption, energy systems, material and energy flows, waste management, use of natural resources, and recycling to enable urban planners to identify the core areas of green infrastructure planning and nature-based solutions. This study investigates the integration of ecosystem-centred urban planning and multifunctional land use into landscape conservation strategies to foster sustainable and resilient urban environments. The research addresses the gap in existing literature by providing a novel urban metabolism model that synthesizes ecological and urban planning principles. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combines a comprehensive literature review, case study analysis from various European cities, and the development of a conceptual framework and an urban metabolism model. The results demonstrate how urban agriculture and ecosystem-centred planning can be effectively utilized to enhance landscape conservation and urban sustainability. Key findings include the identification of practical strategies for implementing nature-based solutions, such as Urban Living Labs, and policy recommendations to facilitate the integration of ecosystem services into urban planning. The study highlights the critical role of urban agriculture in promoting biodiversity, enhancing local food security, and reducing the environmental footprint of cities. Furthermore, the research underscores the importance of developing collaborative governance structures and community participation. The urban metabolism model proposed in this study offers a robust tool for urban planners and policymakers, enabling a system-level understanding of material and energy flows within urban ecosystems.

The goal of this paper is to explore whether there is potential in the Warsaw community to develop urban gardens (UG) to foster adaptation to climate change. The paper acknowledges the presence of UG in the research-recognised repertoire of climate change adaptation tools and, based on social research, highlights and discusses features essential for the potential of social capital. The characteristics of gardeners and urban gardening leaders, the functions of UG as perceived by gardeners and indicators of success were examined. The results identify factors influencing engagement conditions, longevity premises and effectiveness agents.

Urban gardens (UG) in densely populated cities serve as vital spaces, fostering community well‐being, biodiversity, and local food production. Yet, these gardens face a growing threat from air and soil contamination, particularly in cities like Warsaw (Poland), where proximity to major roads, an international airport, and industrial activities elevates the risks. This study, focusing on six UGs in Warsaw, assessed the soil (including potentially toxic elements (PTE) content using spectrophotometric method, soil toxicity and health risks using OECD 208 test method and US EPA Hazard identification method) and air quality (PM_2.5 concentration) recorded at 1.5 m with a calibrated Nephelometer. The results revealed that soil PTE concentrations remained low, with dehydrogenase activity (DHA) and phytotoxicity tests showing no toxic effects. Both microbial activity and plant growth were unaffected by pollution levels, suggesting that these UGs maintain healthy ecosystems. Moreover, health risk assessments confirmed no significant risks associated with exposure to garden soils for either adults or children. The reduction of PM_2.5 levels within the gardens further highlights their role as protective green spaces. These findings support the idea that UGs, even in areas exposed to urban stressors, do not pose significant environmental or health risks, making them safe, and valuable components of urban infrastructure.

Family Allotment Gardens (FAGs) represent key components of urban cooling and air-purification systems. However, research has mainly focused on their social roles and on their contributions to food production. This study quantified the capacity of FAGs in Warsaw (Poland) to provide two key ecosystem services at distances up to 300 m from their boundaries: air-pollution filtration and microclimate regulation. Measurements of particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10), air temperature and relative humidity were conducted along transects inside and outside three allotment complexes in autumn 2023, a period characterised by increased traffic emissions and elevated particulate levels. The results show a moderate but significant reduction in PM concentrations inside gardens (by about 2 µg/m³; r = 0.22–0.29) and slightly higher humidity (by 2.1%; r = −0.34). The cooling effect was weak (<0.3 °C; r = 0.06), indicating a limited spatial range under autumn conditions, though selected transects exhibited stronger local effects. The results confirm that FAGs can contribute to air purification and local climate regulation, but their effectiveness depends on vegetation structure and urban context. Strengthening their role requires integration with green-infrastructure planning and emission-reduction practices within gardens. FAGs, beyond their recreational and productive value, should be recognised as active components of urban adaptation strategies.