In order to best nutrient use efficiency, as required by the increasing food demand for the future global population, in this work an innovative hybrid nanocomposite was designed as an alternative nanoscale fertilizer. An environmentally friendly chemical preparation based on polyelectrolyte complexation was used. A chitosan and sodium alginate complex was selected as a biodegradable shell to release the nanoscale nutrient, CuO nanoparticles. By optimizing the synthesis conditions, i.e. pH and polymer/cross-linker ratio, good stability and accurate size control of the resulting nanocomposites were achieved. The morphology features were evaluated using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and chemical characterization was performed using X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. All the collected data confirmed spontaneous polymeric aggregation in nanostructures of sperical shape, having a mean diameter of about 300 nm, as well as CuO encapsulation inside the polymeric coating. Moreover, the role of the biopolymer shell in the significant slowing of copper release from the hybrid nanocomposite was reported. Finally, the nanocomposite efficacy in seeding and germination was evaluated on Fortunella margarita Swingle seeds. The tests demonstrated the benefits in the seedling growth together with a synergic effect in developing both the epigean and hypogean parts. The obtained results indicated that the proposed hybrid nanocomposite could be a potential alternative to realize a smart delivery nanofertilizer using an eco-sustainable method.

The study evaluates the accuracy of measured and estimated crop evapotranspiration fluxes (${ET}_c$ ) on Citrus in a semiarid Mediterranean climate (Sicily, Italy). Specifically, ${ET}_c$ rates derived from in situ techniques [eddy covariance (EC) and sap flow heat pulse velocity (HPV)] and modelling approaches [Food and Agricultural Organization of the United States (FAO) Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56 (FAO-56) single and dual crop coefficient ($K_c$ )] were compared under deficit irrigation scenarios. Results of the comparison showed that the single and dual $K_c$ approaches provided similar ${ET}_c$ estimates (292 and 324 mm), even if these approaches overestimated ${ET}_c$ measured by EC (${ET}_{EC}$ ) (17% and 30% respectively). HPV was able to show transpiration (T) reductions caused by deficit irrigation strategies when compared with T under full irrigation condition (ranging from 70% to 82%). Overall, the assessed methodologies were able to capture ${ET}_c$ trends, but the selection of the most appropriate one will depend on the specific crop and study site characteristics.

Vineyards play a crucial role in the economies, landscapes, and ecosystems of temperate regions. Cover cropping is an agroecological practice that enhances ecosystem services delivery while mitigating the negative impacts associated with grapevine cultivation. This meta-analysis assessed for the first time the influence of cover crops through multiple explanatory variables, including edaphic and climatic factors, vineyard and cover crop management on provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services in temperate vineyards worldwide. We analyzed data from 64 studies ( n = 1308 paired comparisons) using the natural logarithm of the response ratio [Ln(RR)] as the effect size, with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) to evaluate the magnitude and significance of response variables. A random-effects model was used for the overall meta-analysis. Effect sizes for explanatory variables were subsequently compared using subgroup meta-analyses with mixed-effects models. Overall, cover crops had no significant effect on provisioning (−0.056; 95% CI: −0.154 to 0.042; p = 0.263), but significantly improved regulating (0.342; 95% CI: 0.075, 0.610; p = 0.012) and supporting ecosystem services (0.124; 95% CI: 0.008, 0.241; p = 0.036). Regulating ecosystem services were particularly enhanced in semiarid climates, organic systems, irrigated vineyards, under high grapevine density and in-row cover crop management, and where cover cropping had been adopted for a medium to long period. Greater gains were also associated with spontaneous vegetation, mixed or non-traditional cover crop species, and termination via green manuring or mowing. Supporting ecosystem services also benefited where cover cropping had been adopted for a medium to long period, particularly under organic farming, with cover crop mixtures, and when terminated via roller-crimping. Among studies assessing multiple ecosystem services, 28% reported win–win outcomes, 17% showed lose–lose scenarios, 42% exhibited trade-offs, whereas 13% did not affect ecosystem services. These results demonstrate the ecological benefits of cover crops in temperate vineyards, especially for regulating and supporting ecosystem services, without compromising grapevine yield.