Water is a crucial resource to produce dairy milk and studies are required to identify opportunities for improvements in water management. This study evaluates the water productivity of milk (WPMilk) produced on 67 farms located in southern Brazil and the influence of dairy cattle production systems (pasture-based, 57 farms; semi-confined, 7 farms; confinement, 3 farms) on water productivity. Indirect and direct water flows were taken into account and the dairy milk was the output. Pasture yield was estimated based on a weighted average. Indirect water represented >98 % of water consumption for milk production on farms assessed. In the pasture-based system, the WPMilk ranged from 0.27 to 1.46 kg FPCM (Fat Protein Corrected Milk) m^-3 of water; in the semi-confined system it ranged from 0.59 to 1.1 kg FPCM m^-3; in the confined system, it ranged from 0.89 to 1.09 kg FPCM m^-3. Results show that 20 farms in the pasture-based system presented higher WPMilk than the maximum WPMilk of farms in the semi-confined system. Comparing outcomes of farms in the confined system with pasture-based system, similar results were observed with higher WPMilk on 22 farms in the pasture-based system. Results indicate that, regardless of the type of production system, water productivity is influenced by the dairy productivity indicators of the farm, such as milk yield and feed components. The large variability in the WPMilk was expected and reflects the inherent attributes and conditions affecting this indicator, which underlines the importance of assessing it on a farm scale. Consequently, achieving high dairy productivity indicators should be encouraged in the pasture-based system due to the environmental, economic and social advantages for the farmer. Results advance the knowledge about water flows and WPMilk in different dairy cattle production systems besides defining the first benchmarks for WPMilk produced on farms in Brazil.

Assessment of nutritional water productivity (NWP) combines a metric of crop or livestock production per unit water consumed and human nutritional value of the food produced. As such, it can rationalize the use of scarce water for a portfolio of crop and livestock production systems that jointly match human nutritional needs and reduce water scarcity impacts. However, a comprehensive search and review of 40 NWP studies highlighted that current NWP studies vary widely in terms of their methodological approaches, the data and tools used and the water flows and nutrient content accounted for. Most of the studies accounted for evapotranspiration stemming from precipitation and technical water, and/or inclusion of the withdrawn technical water. Water scarcity was only addressed in four studies. The reported NWP values also varied for accounting of macro- (energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates) and micro-nutrient (minerals and vitamins) content. The methodological differences, however, severely limit the informative value of reported NWP values. A multidisciplinary research effort is required to further develop standardized metrics for NWP, including its local environmental water scarcity impacts. A robust NWP analysis framework in agriculture should focus on the integration of assessments of NWP and water scarcity impact (WSI), and development of more field measurements and locally calibrated and validated agrohydrological and farm production models to quantify reliable NWP values and their associated WSI of agriculture production systems worldwide.

This study presents the assessment of water scarcity associated with livestock production in a watershed in Southern Brazil where 115 farms (poultry, pig, and milk) are located. The methods, AWARE—available water remaining, and BWSI—blue water scarcity index, were applied monthly for the year 2018, and the characterization factors (CF) were regionalized into five scenarios evaluated by varying water availability and environmental water requirements. Livestock water consumption accounted for 94.1% of the total water consumed. Low water scarcity was observed in all scenarios (BWSI < 0). The highest CF_AWARE was observed in scenario 3, ranging from 2.15 to 9.70 m³ world eq.m³, with higher water scarcity in summer. In the same scenario, pig production presented the highest annual average water scarcity footprint (WSF) of 90.3 m³ world eq./t carcass weight. Among milk production systems, pasture-based systems presented the highest annual average WSF of 52.7 m³ world eq./t fat protein corrected milk, surpassing semi-confined and confined systems by 12.4% and 3.5%, respectively. In scenario 3, poultry production presented an annual average WSF of 49.3 m³ world eq./t carcass weight. This study contributes knowledge to the livestock sector to perform the assessment of water scarcity.

This study analyzes the relation between Brazilian broiler and pig production and water productivity using recently developed reference guidelines on water footprinting for livestock production systems and supply chains. Different rainfed crop arrangements, in different scenarios and producer regions in Brazil, were assessed. Water productivity of broiler feed consumption ranged from 0.63 to 1.38 kg per m³ water input to rainfed summer maize (safra) and from 1.20 to 2.21 kg per m³ water input to winter maize (safrinha) while it ranged from 0.28 to 0.95 kg per m³ water input to rainfed soy. For pig feed consumption, rainfed maize ranged from 0.68 to 1.49 kg per m³ water input (safra) and from 1.30 to 2.38 kg per m³ water input (safrinha) while it ranged from 0.30 to 1.03 kg per m³ water input to rainfed soy. A potential amount of water saving of 0.0336 km³ year⁻¹ and 0.0202 km³ year⁻¹ could be attained for producing broiler and pig feed, respectively, depending on the crop rotation and producer region. The results showed that the evapotranspiration of animal feed production represents more than 99% of the total water consumption for broiler and pig production in the study area. The implementation of best crop practices resulted in higher water productivity values of chicken and pork meat and also improved the rainfall water-saving in comparison to conventional agriculture. Hence, the water productivity of the animal production chain in tropical regions demands a close relation to agriculture in order to attain a better understanding and improvement of rainfall water productivity for animal feed production.

The research evaluated the impact of poultry farming on the quality of surface waters in a mountainous area of southern Brazil, in order to collect data and assist in the decision-making for sustainable development. The study monitored 13 spots for two years in the sub-basins with intense poultry activity. The water samples were submitted to physicochemical and microbiological analyses in order to assess the Water Quality Index (WQI). The data were analysed by principal component analysis and Pearson’s correlation. Some zones are able to receive future investments and could serve as a basis for the installation of new agricultural units. Others require greater attention from the environmental control agencies.

Steel production accounts for approximately 7% of global GHG emissions. Brazil is the largest steel producer in Latin America, and carbon pricing is rapidly moving from a policy debate to an operational reality, making the financial exposure of Brazilian steelmakers to carbon regulation one of the most pressing industrial sustainability questions in an emerging market context. This study evaluates the financial exposure of the Brazilian steel industry to three carbon pricing scenarios: (i) a domestic cap-and-trade mechanism under Brazil’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading System (SBCE); (ii) Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAMs) applied by key trading partners (EU, a hypothetical USA scenario, and a global scenario); and (iii) supply chain (Scope 3) exposure, relevant under net-zero corporate commitments and the expected expansion of EU-CBAM coverage. Using a scenario-based financial impact approach, with both macro-level (industry) and micro-level (company) analyses, results show that domestic carbon pricing could increase production costs by 7–21%, generating USD 1.6–4.9 billion in additional annual costs (equivalent to 4.3–13.3% of annual industry revenue). International CBAM exposure could reduce Brazilian steel export revenues by USD 570 million to USD 1.7 billion in a global scenario (1.5–4.6% of annual industry revenue). Supply chain emissions represent 68% of the industry’s total carbon pricing exposure, equivalent to USD 1.1–3.3 billion in domestic pricing costs and USD 388 million–1.16 billion in CBAM export revenue reduction. A company-level case study confirms the pattern, with lower Scope 3 intensity yielding a comparatively smaller but still material exposure. These findings offer practical decision support for steel companies and policymakers navigating the transition to a low-carbon economy.