With the ever-increasing global population, it is impossible to meet the demand for animal protein by relying only on conventional methods due to the depleting natural resources. It is very challenging to ensure a sustainable supply of animal proteins from a single source or form and requires a holistic approach by using all suitable options. The present review critically reviewed various technological, sustainability, nutritional value, regulatory framework, food safety challenge, and prospect aspects of plant-based meat analogs, in vitro meat, edible insect, and single-cell proteins as suitable candidates for future food security and supply of animal protein in a sustainable way. For in vitro meat, the technological challenge in the supply of raw inputs, large-size bioreactors, and scale-up remains a major issue. Although having a lower environmental impact, the acceptance of edible insects to more comprehensive sections and associated food safety risks remains a major concern. There is a need for uniform and proper regulations of these alternatives/novel foods across the globe, covering various aspects throughout the food supply chain. Plant-based meat analogs, in vitro meat, insects, and single-cell proteins along with conventional meat can meet the demand for high-quality protein in the near future.

Treating livestock as senseless production machines has led to rampant depletion of natural resources, enhanced greenhouse gas emissions, gross animal welfare violations, and other ethical issues. It has essentially instigated constant scrutiny of conventional meat production by various experts and scientists. Sustainably in the meat sector is a big challenge which requires a multifaced and holistic approach. Novel tools like digitalization of the farming system and livestock market, precision livestock farming, application of remote sensing and artificial intelligence to manage production and environmental impact/GHG emission, can help in attaining sustainability in this sector. Further, improving nutrient use efficiency and recycling in feed and animal production through integration with agroecology and industrial ecology, improving individual animal and herd health by ensuring proper biosecurity measures and selective breeding, and welfare by mitigating animal stress during production are also key elements in achieving sustainability in meat production. In addition, sustainability bears a direct relationship with various social dimensions of meat production efficiency such as non-market attributes, balance between demand and consumption, market and policy failures. The present review critically examines the various aspects that significantly impact the efficiency and sustainability of meat production.

The influence of pre-slaughter electrical stunning techniques and slaughter without stunning on bleeding efficiency and shelf life of chevon during a 14 d postmortem aging were assessed. Thirty two Boer crossbred bucks were randomly assigned to four slaughtering techniques viz slaughter without stunning (SWS), low frequency head-only electrical stunning (LFHO; 1 A for 3 s at a frequency of 50 Hz), low frequency head-to-back electrical stunning (LFHB; 1 A for 3 s at a frequency of 50 Hz) and high frequency head-to-back electrical stunning (HFHB; 1 A for 3 s at a frequency of 850 Hz). The SWS, LFHO and HFHB goats had higher (p<0.05) blood loss and lower residual hemoglobin in muscle compared to LFHB. The LFHB meat had higher (p<0.05) TBARS value than other treatments on d 7 and 14 d postmortem. Slaughtering methods had no effect on protein oxidation. Higher bacterial counts were observed in LFHB meat compared to those from SWS, LFHO and HFHB after 3 d postmortem. Results indicate that the low bleed-out in LFHB lowered the lipid oxidative stability and microbiological quality of chevon during aging.

The sharpness of the knife used for slaughter is of the utmost importance from an animal welfare perspective. The quantification of knife sharpness is almost impossible in abattoirs. The sharpness of the knife blade used to slaughter an animal, as well as its effects on animals’ pain and stress levels, is an important area of investigation that needs to be addressed. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of knife sharpness on blood biochemical parameters, plasma catecholamines, and electroencephalographic (EEG) responses. Twenty Brahman crossbred steers were either subjected to slaughter with a sharp knife (n = 10) or a commercial sharp knife (n = 10); knife sharpness was measured with the ANAGO^® sharpness tester. There was significant increase in adrenaline (p < 0.0001), glucose (p = 0.0167), creatinine kinase (p = 0.0123) and lactate dehydrogenase (p = 0.0151) at post-slaughter compared to pre-slaughter in commercial sharp knife group than in thesharp knife group. A significant increase was observed in the median frequency (p < 0.0001) and total power (p < 0.0001) of the EEG, the parameters for pain and stress, in the animals slaughtered with the commercial sharp knife than those slaughtered with the sharp knife. Thus, EEG results also supported the hormonal and biochemical results. From the results, it is concluded that animals slaughtered with a sharp knife experienced the least amount of pain and stress compared to those slaughtered with a commercial sharp knife.

The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of sea and road transport on the acute phase proteins (APP), cortisol, metabolic, haematological and electroencephalographic (EEG) responses of Brahman crossbred heifers. Sixty Brahman crossbred heifers were subjected to 14 d of transportation by sea from Darwin Port, Australia, to Pasir Gudang Port, Johor, Malaysia, and 330 km of road transportation. Results revealed that the intensity of response for most blood biochemical parameters increased significantly and were different from the baseline values taken while the animals were in Darwin Port, Australia. Haematological results obtained also revealed a significant increase and were different from the baseline values. Cortisol and APP (bovine alpha 1-acid glycoprotein and serum amyloid-A) values increased significantly and were different from the baseline values. Haematological parameters, APP, cortisol and EEG data (alpha, beta, delta and theta waves, total power and median frequency) decreased significantly following 4 and 7 days post-transport, suggesting a recovery of the animals from the stressfulness of transport. In conclusion, the current results revealed that the concentrations of biochemical and haematological parameters, cortisol, APP and EEG data were affected by both sea and road transport as evidenced by the significant changes recorded from the parameters above.