Heritage buildings pose persistent challenges for documentation and conservation due to their geometric complexity, material heterogeneity, and the fragmentation of spatial and semantic datasets. To address these limitations, this study proposes a geospatially enabled HBIM–GIS framework that integrates hybrid photogrammetric survey data with semantic modeling and spatial analysis to support evidence-based conservation planning. A multi-source acquisition strategy combining terrestrial digital photogrammetry (TDP), Unmanned aerial vehicle digital photogrammetry (UAVDP), and spherical photogrammetry (SP) was employed to capture accurate geometric and semantic information across multiple spatial scales. Staged point-cloud fusion (UAVDP → TDP via ICP; SP → UAV–TDP via SICP) generated a high-density, georeferenced composite, achieving RMS residuals below 0.013 m and resulting in an integrated dataset exceeding 360 million points. From this composite, authoritative 2D drawings and a reality-based 3D HBIM model were developed, while GIS thematic mapping translated heterogeneous observations into structured, queryable layers representing materials, cracks, detachments, deformations, and construction phases. The proposed framework enabled the spatial diagnosis of deterioration mechanisms, revealing moisture-driven decay from plinth to mid-wall and concentrated cracking at openings and architectural transitions; side-to-side cracks accounted for approximately 55% and 65% of mapped fissures on the most affected façades. By embedding these diagnostics as element-level attributes within the HBIM environment, the framework supports precise localization, quantification, and prioritization of conservation interventions, ensuring material-compatible and location-specific decision making. The applicability of the framework is demonstrated through its implementation on a complex historic mosque in Yemen, validating its robustness under constrained access and resource-limited conditions. Overall, the study demonstrates that geospatially integrated HBIM–GIS workflows provide a reproducible, scalable, and transferable solution for the sustainable documentation and conservation of heritage buildings, supporting long-term monitoring and informed management of cultural heritage assets worldwide.

Historic districts possess significant cultural value, yet visitors with disabilities, particularly wheelchair users, often encounter substantial barriers to physical access. Previous studies have highlighted a gap in the assessment of walking routes utilized by wheelchair users in these districts. Therefore, this study aims to assess the extent to which historic districts’ walking routes are physically accessible for wheelchair users in the Jeddah Historic District, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Saudi Arabia. As a method, we developed a wheelchair accessibility assessment checklist (consisting of 14 assessment indicators) to evaluate 14 walking routes in the Historic District of Jeddah, accompanied by an observation strategy (consisting of five questions) to understand wheelchair users’ behavior using these routes. Our results reveal that the walking route assessments show inconsistent accessibility for wheelchair users, with the lowest rating for the indicator of route crossing signals, followed by route connectivity, the width of wheelchair parking space, accessibility to surrounding buildings, route crossing treatment, route ramp slope, and route ramp pavement quality. These findings offer valuable insights for local authorities to improve regulations and enforce wheelchair accessibility standards, promoting social sustainability and equal access for all. It also helps to underscore the necessity of prioritizing physical accessibility in the design of urban open spaces within historic districts to improve social sustainability. Ultimately, this study offers a practical and cost-effective method for other similar cities around the world to assess wheelchair inclusion in their cultural heritage sites.

The conservation of architectural heritage (AH) in regions threatened by natural and human-induced factors requires interdisciplinary approaches that integrate physical documentation with semantic modeling. This study introduces a comprehensive framework combining Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM) with ontology-based modeling aligned with the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CIDOC CRM). Focusing on the Big Gate and adjacent curtain walls in Ibb, Yemen, where the gate is entirely lost, the study reconstructs the structure using historical photographs, eyewitness accounts, and analogical references. The methodology incorporates UAV and terrestrial photogrammetry surveys, point cloud generation, and semantic enrichment using Autodesk Revit V. 2024 and Protégé V. 5.5. Decay phenomena such as cracks, efflorescence, and disintegration were ontologically classified and spatially linked to the HBIM model, revealing deterioration patterns concerning historical phases and environmental exposure. The resulting system enables dynamic documentation, facilitates strategic conservation planning, and enhances data interoperability across heritage platforms. The proposed framework is transferable to other heritage sites, supporting both the conservation of extant structures and the reconstruction of lost ones.

Considering the significance of physical activities in maintaining physical and mental well-being, several nations made exceptions during the COVID-19 lockdowns and allowed residents to walk outdoors, but with time and distance restrictions that varied across countries. This study aimed to identify if such regulations provided residents with equal access to public open spaces (POS) to engage in physical activity during the lockdown. Using a mixed research method (secondary descriptive data, field observations, and spatial analysis), we assessed the one-kilometer walking limit imposed on six typical existing neighborhoods in Jeddah city, Saudi Arabia. We find that the imposed one-kilometer limit was effective in providing accessibility, and the four urban factors ensured the effectiveness of the imposed walking distance: the small scale of residential districts in comparison to the long-imposed walking distance; the presence of neighborhood parks near main local streets; the distribution of neighborhood parks throughout the districts; and the absence of major highways that physically isolated residential districts. Notably, regulations related to walking distances during future pandemics should not be generalized to all cities; instead, they should be based on the existing availability of relatively good POS provisions with easy and equal access to all community members to enhance social sustainability.

In the 21st century, Saudi cities have witnessed a high rate of private car ownership, averaging 1.38 vehicles per family. This has significantly increased demand for parking in residential areas, leading to unregulated parking behaviors that negatively affect street and sidewalk infrastructure. Although some research has been conducted in Saudi Arabia on illegal parking in commercial streets, research on unregulated parking in residential streets remains underexplored. This study investigates the impact of unregulated parking behavior on street and sidewalk infrastructure in residential districts with apartment zones in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, determining the extent to which current sidewalk strips have been modified to extend on-street parking, create front setbacks for parking, and provide access to ground-floor private parking and residential building entrances. We selected six typical apartment building zones and mapped parking behavior through direct observations, processing collected data through ArcGIS. Our findings reveal negative impacts, resulting in significant parts of sidewalks, front setbacks, and streets being used for parking, thereby creating unhealthy and unsafe residential areas for walking and other physical activities. This study offers a comprehensive understanding of the unregulated parking problem and its subsequent impact on residents’ quality of life, particularly in terms of walking accessibility and safety.

This study proposes a four-dimensional Historical Building Defect Information Modeling (HBDIM) framework designed to support the documentation, diagnosis, and conservation of deteriorated historic stucco elements. The framework integrates multi-source digital documentation techniques, including terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), high-resolution photogrammetry, and automated total station measurements with laboratory-based material diagnostics to create a unified digital environment for defect detection and conservation assessment. The approach was applied to the Baron Empain Palace in Egypt as a representative case study of complex architectural heritage affected by material deterioration. Within the HBDIM workflow, point cloud processing and defect-oriented information modeling were used to identify and spatially localize deterioration features such as cracking, erosion, and material loss. Laboratory investigations—including computed tomography (CT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)—were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of calcium hydroxide nanoparticle consolidation treatments and to relate microstructural material behavior to spatially mapped defects within the digital model. Mechanical testing demonstrated a significant improvement in material performance, with treated stucco samples exhibiting an average compressive strength increase of approximately 69.06% compared to untreated specimens. The results demonstrate that integrating digital documentation, defect-oriented modeling, and material diagnostics within a four-dimensional framework provides a robust platform for linking geometric deterioration patterns with material-level conservation performance. By embedding diagnostic data and treatment outcomes within a temporally structured digital model, the HBDIM approach supports preventive conservation strategies, long-term monitoring, and data-driven decision-making in sustainable heritage management.