Preserving cultural heritage through monitoring, registering, and analyzing damage in historical architectural structures presents significant financial and logistical burdens. Developed approaches for monitoring and registering 4D (4-dimensional)-scanned range and raster images of damaged objects were investigated in a case study of historical Baron Palace in Egypt. In the methodology, we first prepared and observed the damaged historical models. The damaged historical models were scanned using a laser scanner at a predetermined date and time. Simultaneously, digital images of the models were captured (by a calibrated digital camera) and stored on a researcher’s tablet device. By observing and comparing the scanned models with the digital images, geometric defects and their extent are identified. Then, the observed data components were detected on the map. Then, damaged statue materials were investigated using system of energy dispersive (SEM; scanning electron microscope, Gemini Zeiss-Ultra 55) and XRF (X-ray fluorescence) spectroscopic analysis to identify the statue’s marble elements, and the results indicate that SEM-EDX and XRF analyses accurately identify major and minor compositions of the damaged statue. Then, the damaged models were registered in two stages. In the registration stages, the corresponding points were determined automatically by detecting the closest points in the clouds and ICP (iterative closest point) algorithm in RiSCAN. The point clouds (of the Palace and damaged statues) gave very detailed resolutions and more realistic images in RiSCAN, but it is a costly program. Finally, the accuracies of the registration tasks were assessed; the standard deviations are within acceptable limits and tend to increase irregularly as the number of polydata observations used in the registration calculations increase.

- There is imprecision in the stage of construction because of manual quality control in the construction procedures. Forming and processing point clouds image of as is truss part with its CAD data are researched to identify and repair the geometric discrepancies and imprecision. Approved suggested technique of processing building model was done. Instead of manual processing of the 3D models points. BPNN architecture give the best coordinates processing training. It is applied to optimize the points forming process between the input laser scanned coordinates of the as-built model with the output true CAD coordinates. RMSE in x, y, xy, z and space vector R of all processing tasks are computed acceptably.

This study presents an innovative 4D digital model that integrates Bridge Information Modeling (BrIM) with several types of data to defect detection in complex bridge structures. The model promotes precise data preparation, navigation, visualization, integration, and monitoring, enabling the identification of defects, like material deterioration, condition changes, and structural clashes in components like trusses. Bridge model provides time-based access to maps, allowing users to explore changes over time and predict future conditions. The integration of time dimension into the 4D model provides dynamic tools for exploring changes over time, allowing for analysis and maintenance planning. Through the use of advanced 4D simulation technology, the study’s effectiveness is in visualizing workflows, identifying constraints, and supporting proactive decision-making in structural management. By incorporating various perspectives and enabling users to interact with detailed visualizations, the model enhances understanding and maintenance practices. This approach advances defect modeling and digitization, supporting automation in defect detection while significantly contributing to the long-term safety and sustainability of bridges. In order to obtain non-destructive images and films of the morphology of the sandstone’s internal structure at the bridge pier in addition to the stone’s grain texture and surface characteristics, this research applied X-ray computed tomography approach (CT scan) and XRF as NDT to the analysis of sandstone.

This study proposes a four-dimensional Historical Building Defect Information Modeling (HBDIM) framework designed to support the documentation, diagnosis, and conservation of deteriorated historic stucco elements. The framework integrates multi-source digital documentation techniques, including terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), high-resolution photogrammetry, and automated total station measurements with laboratory-based material diagnostics to create a unified digital environment for defect detection and conservation assessment. The approach was applied to the Baron Empain Palace in Egypt as a representative case study of complex architectural heritage affected by material deterioration. Within the HBDIM workflow, point cloud processing and defect-oriented information modeling were used to identify and spatially localize deterioration features such as cracking, erosion, and material loss. Laboratory investigations—including computed tomography (CT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)—were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of calcium hydroxide nanoparticle consolidation treatments and to relate microstructural material behavior to spatially mapped defects within the digital model. Mechanical testing demonstrated a significant improvement in material performance, with treated stucco samples exhibiting an average compressive strength increase of approximately 69.06% compared to untreated specimens. The results demonstrate that integrating digital documentation, defect-oriented modeling, and material diagnostics within a four-dimensional framework provides a robust platform for linking geometric deterioration patterns with material-level conservation performance. By embedding diagnostic data and treatment outcomes within a temporally structured digital model, the HBDIM approach supports preventive conservation strategies, long-term monitoring, and data-driven decision-making in sustainable heritage management.

This study evaluates a SiO₂ nanoparticle (SiO₂NPs)/Paraloid B-72 nanocomposite as a restorative and antifungal treatment for deteriorated sandstone at the Ptolemaic Temple of Isis, located within a densely populated residential area. The temple stones exhibit structural damage, soiling, and severe microbiological deterioration. Fungal isolates from the sandstone were cultured on PDA medium and identified by ITS region DNA sequencing as Alternaria alternata, Penicillium chrysogenum, and Aspergillus niger. The SiO₂NPs and their Paraloid B-72 nanocomposites were synthesized and characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Stone samples, examined before and after treatment via SEM-EDX, TEM, and XRD, were used to assess both conservation performance and compatibility. Laboratory antifungal tests showed that SiO₂NPs at 300 ppm exhibited the greatest inhibition of mycelial growth, reaching 91.59% for P. chrysogenum, 90.77% for A. niger, and 85.2% for A. alternata. Mechanical testing demonstrated that treatment with the SiO₂NPs/Paraloid B-72 nanocomposite enhanced stone strength, increasing compressive strength from 26.5 MPa to 27.4 MPa. SEM images confirmed excellent, homogeneous dispersion of the nanocomposite on stone grains, forming a coherent coating without pore occlusion. Overall, the SiO₂NPs/Paraloid B-72 formulation improved sandstone surface properties while substantially improving short-term mechanical performance and antifungal efficacy, indicating promise for enhancing restoration procedures when combined with established conservation protocols for sandstone architectural heritage.