Rickettsiae actively escape from vacuoles and replicate free in the cytoplasm of host cells, where inflammasomes survey the invading pathogens. In the present study, we investigated the interactions of Rickettsia australis with the inflammasome in both mouse and human macrophages. R. australis induced a significant level of IL-1β secretion by human macrophages, which was significantly reduced upon treatment with an inhibitor of caspase-1 compared to untreated controls, suggesting caspase-1-dependent inflammasome activation. Rickettsia induced significant secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 in vitro by infected mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) as early as 8–12 h post infection (p.i.) in a dose-dependent manner. Secretion of these cytokines was accompanied by cleavage of caspase-1 and was completely abrogated in BMMs deficient in caspase-1/caspase-11 or apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase activation and recruitment domain (ASC), suggesting that R. australis activate the ASC-dependent inflammasome. Interestingly, in response to the same quantity of rickettsiae, NLRP3^-/- BMMs significantly reduced the secretion level of IL-1β compared to wild type (WT) controls, suggesting that NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to cytosolic recognition of R. australis in vitro. Rickettsial load in spleen, but not liver and lung, of R. australis-infected NLRP3^-/- mice was significantly greater compared to WT mice. These data suggest that NLRP3 inflammasome plays a role in host control of bacteria in vivo in a tissue-specific manner. Taken together, our data, for the first time, illustrate the activation of ASC-dependent inflammasome by R. australis in macrophages in which NLRP3 is involved.

Rickettsiae can cause life-threatening infections in humans. Macrophages are one of the initial targets for rickettsiae after inoculation by ticks. However, it remains poorly understood how rickettsiae remain free in macrophages prior to establishing their infection in microvascular endothelial cells. Here, we demonstrated that the concentration of Rickettsia australis was significantly greater in infected tissues of Atg5^flox/flox mice than in the counterparts of Atg5^flox/flox Lyz-Cre mice, in association with a reduced level of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in serum. The greater concentration of R. australis in Atg5^flox/flox bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) than in Atg5^flox/flox Lyz-Cre BMMs in vitro was abolished by exogenous treatment with recombinant IL-1β. Rickettsia australis induced significantly increased levels of light chain 3 (LC3) form II (LC3-II) and LC3 puncta in Atg5-competent BMMs but not in Atg5-deficient BMMs, while no p62 turnover was observed. Further analysis found the colocalization of LC3 with a small portion of R. australis and Rickettsia-containing double-membrane-bound vacuoles in the BMMs of B6 mice. Moreover, treatment with rapamycin significantly increased the concentrations of R. australis in B6 BMMs compared to those in the untreated B6 BMM controls. Taken together, our results demonstrate that Atg5 favors R. australis infection in mouse macrophages in association with a suppressed level of IL-1β production but not active autophagy flux. These data highlight the contribution of Atg5 in macrophages to the pathogenesis of rickettsial diseases.

Spotted fever group rickettsiae cause potentially life-threatening infections throughout the world. Several members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family are involved in host response to rickettsiae, and yet the mechanisms by which these TLRs mediate host immunity remain incompletely understood. In the present study, we found that host susceptibility of MyD88^−/−mice to infection withRickettsia conoriiorRickettsia australiswas significantly greater than in wild-type (WT) mice, in association with severely impaired bacterial clearancein vivo.R. australis-infected MyD88^−/−mice showed significantly lower expression levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1β, accompanied by significantly fewer inflammatory infiltrates of macrophages and neutrophils in infected tissues, than WT mice. The serum levels of IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-6, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor were significantly reduced, while monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α, and RANTES were significantly increased in infected MyD88^−/−mice compared to WT mice. Strikingly,R. australisinfection was incapable of promoting increased expression of MHC-II^highand production of IL-12p40 in MyD88^−/−bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) compared to WT BMDCs, although costimulatory molecules were upregulated in both types of BMDCs. Furthermore, the secretion levels of IL-1β byRickettsia-infected BMDCs and in the sera of infected mice were significantly reduced in MyD88^−/−mice compared to WT controls, suggesting thatin vitroandin vivoproduction of IL-1β is MyD88 dependent. Taken together, our results suggest that MyD88 signaling mediates instructive signals in DCs and secretion of IL-1β and type 1 immune cytokines, which may account for the protective inflammatory response during rickettsial infection.

Algae preparations are commonly used in alternative medicine. We examined the effects of algae extracts on normal hematopoietic cells and leukemia cells. Ethanol extracts were prepared of Dunaliella salina (Dun), Astaxanthin (Ast), Spirulina platensis (Spir), and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (AFA). Cell viability effects were completed by Annexin staining. Ast and AFA inhibited HL-60 and MV-4-11 whereas Dun and Spir had no effect. Primary AML blasts demonstrated increased apoptosis in AFA. Primary CLL cells showed apoptosis at 24 hours after exposure to Dun, Ast, Spir, and AFA. High AFA concentrations decreased viability of normal marrow cells. Normal viability was inhibited by Dun. Dun and AFA inhibited BFU-E, but all extracts inhibited CFU-GM. Cell-cycle analysis of AML cell lines showed G0/G1 arrest in the presence of AFA. These data suggest that algae extracts may inhibit AML cell lines and leukemia blasts, but they may also have potential inhibitory effects on normal hematopoiesis.

How leukemia progenitors interact with marrow microenvironment components is poorly understood. In this work, the effects of endothelial coculture on acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) blast survival is examined as are the effects of endothelial coculture on the impact of a cytotoxic agent such as cytarabine. Similar to marrow stromal cells, endothelial cells are able to increase survival and proliferation of AML blasts and to partially protect against cytarabine effects. The proteasome inhibitor, bortezomib, has inhibitory effects in multiple myeloma in part through effects on marrow stromal cells. Bortezomib has been found to inhibit AML blast survival. Such inhibition is less, however, in the presence of endothelial monolayers. Furthermore, AML blast transmigration through human umbilical vein endothelial cells is inhibited by bortezomib. These studies demonstrate that AML is subject to influence of endothelial cells and of agents such as bortezomib which have potential impact on AML interaction with the microenvironmental niche.