Water polo is a team sport that has been suffering rule changes aiming for a more attractive game. Our goal was to unveil whether different offensive playing styles or methods were adopted by elite national teams from Eastern Europe and from other world countries after the new rules framework was applied at the 2019 FINA World Championship. Additionally, we questioned whether those rules induced a more dynamic game. A total of 648 offensive sequences from games contested by the top-six ranked national squads were analysed. Descriptive statistics, parametric and nonparametric tests were computed, and the effect size was used. The eastern Europeans were the tallest (t (76) = −4.081; p < 0.001, d = 0.42) and the Hungarians were higher than Italians (p = 0.005, d_z = −0.41). Offensive time length differed between teams (H (5) = 30.50, p < 0.001) with Serbia being the fastest (Mdn = 22 s). In successful attacks without extra time, Italy was quicker than Spain (17.5 vs. 25.0 s; p = 0.031, d_z = −0.36) scoring 30% of their total goals under 20 s, while Australia up to 24% and Croatia, Hungary and Spain ≤ 16.0%. When power-play occurred, the teams’ pass action was different (H (5) = 15.99, p < 0.007), with Italy performing more passes than counterparts, especially Serbia (Mdn = 13 vs. 9, respectively; p= 0.003, d_z = 0.20) and with the exception of Hungary. Through fast play sequences, Italy, Serbia and Australia scored up to 33% of their goals, while Spain, Croatia, and Hungary scored ≤ 15%. The power-play contributed to ≥50% of teams’ goals, except for Spain and Australia (48 and 45%, respectively). Playing styles commonly attributed to Eastern vs. non-Eastern Europeans and other worldwide national teams such as Australia were not confirmed. However, offensive trends were perceived and described for the first time, and some base guidelines were suggested to distinguish the static or positional vs. a more dynamic playing model. Rule changes did not seem to induce the expected effects on game dynamics.

Due to the growing engagement of youth in water polo practice, we aimed to characterize age-grouped players across anthropometric, general and specific motor abilities and contextual domains. We have also examined the associations of players’ specific skills with their anthropometric and general motor characteristics. One-hundred-and-one male water polo players, grouped into 12-, 13- and 14-year age cohorts were recruited. One-way ANOVA explained age-cohort variance, and a multiple linear regression was used to assess the association between variables. The variance in cohorts was explained by arm span (25%), stature, hand breadth and length (17%) fat-free mass (18%), 20 m sprint (16%), sit-ups (18%), medicine ball throw (27%), anaerobic (31%) and aerobic performance (21%), change of direction (18%), and in-water vertical jump (14%). The variance of in-water vertical jump, 10 m sprint, change of direction and aerobic fitness for players’ anthropometric characteristics were, 32, 25, 14 and 10% (respectively). The players’ upper-limb explosive power explained 30, 22 and 17% of variance for in-water vertical jump, 10 m sprint and aerobic fitness, respectively. Body mass had an inverse, and arm span had a direct association with in-water vertical jump and swim velocity capability, arm span had an inverse and direct association with change of direction and aerobic fitness, respectively. The upper limbs’ explosive power related directly to in-water vertical jump and aerobic fitness skills, but inversely with 10 m sprint scores.

We have evaluated water polo vertical jump and shooting success determinants, their interplay, identified its main variables and proposed a predictive model. Twenty-two sub-elite players (23.23±7.22yrs and 13.0±5.4yrs of experience) were tested for absolute vertical jump (146.41±6.96cm), relative jump (considering trunk and upper limb length) and handgrip strength (54.97±5.26kgf). Shooting speed (radar), efficacy and accuracy (%) were also assessed. Players with higher trunk and upper limb length were those who had less elevation out of the water (R=0.60, p=0.004) and relative jump and body mass were the explanatory main variables of absolute vertical jump (r²=0.41, p=0.003). Shot speed to goal was 18.66±1.37 and 18.37±1.27m.s^-1 (with and without previous displacement), with players attaining 50.0±33.7 and 59.09±34.02% of shot efficacy. Towards canvas target, shot speed was 17.47±1.61 and 17.26±1.69m.s^-1, and players were 24.6±18.5 and 27.3±20.0% accurate. Handgrip strength was highlighted as the main variable for shot speed situations and predictive models were found, which did not occur regarding efficacy and accuracy ‘without displacement’. However, a model has been found for shot accuracy toward canvas ‘with previous displacement’ (r²=0.34; p=0.003) in which handgrip strength is focused. Results found are important to monitoring and better plan the training process for the enhancement of team performance.

The purpose of the present study was to analyze the attacking tasks and tactical organization of elite Women’s Water Polo. The sample consisted of 442 attack sequences of 8 games played by the top teams in a European Championship. Seventeen variables were analyzed according to the position and player’s participation, tactical organization and playing styles, as well as the efficacy of actions performed. The results from this study indicate that positional attack was the predominant performance factor in the attacking process. To this occurrence, the mixed floating defense was identified as the most frequent opposition. The counter-attack proved to be the most efficient strategy. The attacking process frequently started by ball recovering, in anticipation, and by the defense of the goal-keeper in the 2m zone. In central path, a first long-range pass to the right wing predominated. Teams preferred spontaneous shot on goal supported by assisted displacements, and extra player man offence situations. In general, the attacking sequences, do not take longer than 35s to be developed.) Teams efficiency emerged related to the tactical means adopted, namely the spontaneous shot at goal on the front line and numerical superiority of players in attacking game situations.

Existing research points to sex-specific biological and physiological differences, but the effects of sex and age on water polo-specific motor skills have not yet been sufficiently investigated. The current study investigated sex- and age-related disparities in in-water vertical jump, change of direction ability, sprint performance, aerobic fitness and shot velocity, hypothesising that these variables are related to the players’ specific motor performance. Sixty-six players (47 males, 19 females) were split into an adult and a young group (each with n = 33). Two-way (sex and age as factors) analysis of variance and Tukey’s post hoc test were employed to evaluate the influence of sex and age on specific water polo skill performance. The male players’ in-water vertical jump (135.4 ± 8.1 vs. 121.5 ± 6.1 cm), shot velocity with previous displacement (68.3 ± 6.4 vs. 51.0 ± 2.5 km·h⁻¹) and without displacement (68.5 ± 5.7 vs. 52.2 ± 2.9 km·h⁻¹), 10 m sprint (5.6 ± 0.9 vs. 6.6 ± 0.4 s), aerobic fitness (311.7 ± 92.1 vs. 235.7 ± 70.3 m) and change of direction (3.3 ± 0.4 vs. 3.9 ± 0.4 s) scores were superior to those of female players. No significant age-related differences were observed in shot velocity with previous displacement (F (1,53) = 2.124, p = 0.151, η²p = 0.039) or 10 m sprint performances (F(1,62) = 0.935, p = 0.337, η²p = 0.015). Male players outperformed females in most water polo-specific motor skills, while age-related differences were limited.