The search for limonoids started long back when scientists started looking for the factor responsible for bitterness in citrus which has negative impact on citrus fruit and juice industry worldwide. The term limonoids was derived from limonin, the first tetranortriterpenoid obtained from citrus bitter principles. Compounds belonging to this group have exhibited a range of biological activities like insecticidal, insect antifeedant and growth regulating activity on insects as well as antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, anticancer, antiviral and a number of other pharmacological activities on humans. Although hundreds of limonoids have been isolated from various plants but, their occurrence in the plant kingdom is confined to only plant families of order Rutales and that too more abundantly in Meliaceae and Rutaceae, and less frequently in Cneoraceae and Harrisonia sp. of Simaroubaceae. Limonoids are highly oxygenated, modified terpenoids with a prototypical structure either containing or derived from a precursor with a 4,4,8-trimethyl-17-furanylsteroid skeleton. All naturally occurring citrus limonoids contain a furan ring attached to the D-ring, at C-17, as well as oxygen containing functional groups at C-3, C-4, C-7, C-16 and C-17. The structural variations of limonoids found in Rutaceae are less than in Meliaceae and are generally limited to the modification of A and B rings, the limonoids of Meliaceae are more complex with very high degree of oxidation and rearrangement exhibited in the parent limonoid structure. To counter the problem of bitterness in citrus juice and products genetic engineering of citrus to maximize the formation of limonoid glucosides for reducing limonoid bitterness is the focus of recent and future research. Regarding the biological activities of limonoids the investigations are to be directed towards detailed characterization, quantification, and designing a simple as well as versatile synthetic route of apparently important limonoids. Extraction methods too should be optimized; evaluation and establishment of pharmaco-dynamic and kinetic principles, and structure activity relationships should be a key goal associated with limonoids so that they can be safely introduced in our arsenal of pharmaceuticals to safeguard the humanity from the wrath of disease and its discomfort.

Pharmacovigilance plays a consequential role in the surveillance of adverse drug reactions, which is provoked by the drugs used to cure diseases. Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) produce detrimental or undesirable effects to the body after administration of drugs. It has been reported that the number of patients dying because of contrary effects of drugs per year increased upto 2.6-fold. Moreover, rates of hospitalization of patients are increasing owing to adverse effects of drugs. Thus, it becomes challengeable for physician, health care providers, WHO and pharmaceutical industries to resolve the associated problem of ADRs. During the clinical trial of a novel drug, it is prominent to explore the dependability of drug. In this review, we documented the details required to identify the ADRs in patients along with reported banned drugs.

Background: Cichorium intybus is a potent remedial plant used by local inhabitants to treat different types of diseases. It is adulterated with different plant parts looking similar, which affects the potency of the plant. Aim: Hence, pharmacognostic and physicochemical investigations on Cichorium intybus were planned to be performed for their proper authentication. Methods: The micromorphology, microscopy, and physicochemical study, namely loss on drying, ethanol doable extractive, total ash, acid insoluble ash, water soluble ash, sulfated ash, foaming index, and fluorescence analysis of root and stem of Cihcorium intybus, were performed using standard methods. Results: The morphological and microscopic study of the root and stem of Cichorium intybus demonstrated specific features of the root and stem. The physicochemical investigation of root exhibited loss on drying (14.37%), moisture content (8.34%), water-soluble extractive (1.24%), ethanol soluble extractive (0.56%), total ash (5.320%), acid insoluble ash (3.24%), water soluble ash (0.4605%), sulphated ash (0.4605%), and foaming index (142.857). Similarly, physicochemical investigation of aerial part provides loss on drying (16.87%), moisture content (10.50%), water-soluble extractive (0.87%), ethanol soluble extractive (0.865%), total ash (3.20%), acid insoluble ash (2.115%), water-soluble ash (0.312%), sulphated ash (0.312%), and foaming index (166.667). When treated with different reagents, root and stem powder showed clear and distinctive fluorescent color under daylight and UV light. Conclusion: The findings of the pharmacognostic and physicochemical studies help to correctly authenticate Cichorium intybus in its raw form and protect it from adulterations that preserve the potency of the plant.