We report the synthesis of sustainable ordered mesoporous carbons (OMCs) produced from lignin, using the evaporation induced self-assembly (EISA) method. We demonstrated that it is possible to replace half of the phloroglucinol (a well-known carbon precursor currently not derived from bioprecursors) by hardwood organosolv lignin while obtaining a highly ordered pore structure. Notably, we also used glyoxal instead of formaldehyde as a crosslinker, which makes the synthesis route even “greener” with respect to the toxicity of the precursors and their renewable sourcing. Finally, we demonstrated that the resulting carbons make powerful electrodes in supercapacitors and we have made clear correlations between the porous structure and their electrochemical performance in symmetric supercapacitors in order to deliver tailored energy storage to meet various demands (i.e. amount of charge stored vs. power of delivery).

We have discovered a very simple method to address the challenge associated with the low volumetric energy density of free-standing carbon nanofiber electrodes for supercapacitors by electrospinning Kraft lignin in the presence of an oxidizing salt (NaNO₃) and subsequent carbonization in a reducing atmosphere. The presence of the oxidative salt decreases the diameter of the resulting carbon nanofibers doubling their packing density from 0.51 to 1.03 mg cm⁻² and hence doubling the volumetric energy density. At the same time, the oxidative NaNO₃ salt eletrospun and carbonized together with lignin dissolved in NaOH acts as a template to increase the microporosity, thus contributing to a good gravimetric energy density. By simply adjusting the process parameters (amount of oxidizing/reducing agent), the gravimetric and volumetric energy density of the resulting lignin free-standing carbon nanofiber electrodes can be carefully tailored to fit specific power to energy demands. The areal capacitance increased from 147 mF cm⁻² in the absence of NaNO₃ to 350 mF cm⁻² with NaNO₃ translating into a volumetric energy density increase from 949 μW h cm⁻³ without NaNO₃ to 2245 μW h cm⁻³ with NaNO₃. Meanwhile, the gravimetric capacitance also increased from 151 F g⁻¹ without to 192 F g⁻¹ with NaNO₃.

Carbon dots (CDs) are an emerging class of photoluminescent material. Their unique optical properties arise from the discrete energy levels in their electronic states, which directly relate to their crystalline and chemical structure. It is expected that when CDs go through structural changes via chemical reduction or thermal annealing, their energy levels will be altered, inducing unique optoelectronic properties such as solid-state photoluminescence (PL). However, the detailed structural evolution and how the optoelectronic characteristics of CDs are affected remain unclear. Therefore, it is of fundamental interest to understand how the structure of CDs prepared by hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC) rearranges from a highly functionalised disordered structure into a more ordered graphitic structure. In this paper, detailed structural characterisation and in situ TEM were conducted to reveal the structural evolution of CDs during the carbonisation process, which have demonstrated a growth in aromatic domains and reduction in oxidation sites. These structural features are correlated with their near-infrared (NIR) solid-state PL properties, which may find a lot of practical applications such as temperature sensing, solid-state display lighting and anti-counterfeit security inks.

The process of stabilization is essential in the production of carbon fibers from lignins. During stabilization, the initially thermoplastic lignin polymer is converted to a thermoset polymer allowing for high-temperature treatment without a change in shape. In this work, hardwood (HKL) and softwood (SKL) Kraft lignins were stabilized in air at temperatures between 190 and 340 °C before carbonization at 800 °C in a nitrogen atmosphere. Due to the differences in side-chain linkages, functional groups and molar mass, the lignins exhibit different structural changes upon stabilization and hence develop different porosities upon carbonization. Both lignins undergo major crosslinking reactions in the side chains at low temperatures and degradation reactions at high temperatures during stabilization. Crosslinking gives rise to narrow pore size distributions with mainly (sub-) nanometer pores, whereas degradation reactions lead to a more open pore structure with additional mesoporosity (>2 nm). When both types of reactions take place simultaneously, highly accessible (sub-) nanoporosity can be effectively created, which boosts the performance of supercapacitors operating in 6 M KOH_(aq). This effect terminates when the crosslinking reactions cease and mainly degradation reactions take place, which occurs in HKL at 340 °C. SKL shows both a lower degree of crosslinking and degradation and hence develops less specific surface area. The optimum performance in an aqueous alkaline supercapacitor is achieved with HKL stabilized at 310 °C. It shows a specific gravimetric capacitance of 164 F g⁻¹ at 0.1 A g⁻¹ and 119 F g⁻¹ at 250 A g⁻¹ with a capacitance retention of more than 90% after 10 000 cycles.