Palm kernel cake (PKC), a by-product of oil extracted from palm nuts through expeller press or solvent extraction procedures is one of the highest quantities of locally available and potentially inexpensive agricultural product. PKC provides approximately 14–18% of crude protein (CP), 12–20% crude fiber (CF), 3–9% ether extract (EE), and different amounts of various minerals that feasible to be used as a partial substitute of soybean meal (SBM) and corn in poultry nutrition. Poultry’s digestibility is reported to be compromised due to the indigestion of the high fiber content, making PKC potentially low for poultry feeding. Nevertheless, solid-state fermentation (SSF) can be applied to improve the nutritional quality of PKC by improving the CP and reducing CF content. PKC also contains β-mannan polysaccharide, which works as a prebiotic. However, there is a wide variation for the inclusion level of PKC in the broiler diet. These variations may be due to the quality of PKC, its sources, processing methods and value-added treatment. It has been documented that 10–15% of treated PKC could be included in the broiler’s diets. The inclusion levels will not contribute to a negative impact on the growth performances and carcass yield. Furthermore, it will not compromise intestinal microflora, morphology, nutrient digestibility, and immune system. PKC with a proper SSF process (FPKC) can be offered up to 10–15% in the diets without affecting broilers’ production performance.

The overuse of antimicrobials in food-producing animals, particularly poultry, has led to growing concerns about multidrug microbial resistance, posing significant risks to both human and animal health. Subtherapeutic doses of antibiotics have traditionally been used to enhance growth and improve economic efficiency in poultry farming. However, these practices have facilitated the emergence of resistant microbial strains, threatening global health security and prompting a search for sustainable alternatives. This review highlights the significance of phytogenic as feed additives (PFAs) as promising substitutes for antibiotic as feed additives (AFAs) in poultry production. PFAs, derived from plant-based compounds, exhibit multiple beneficial properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory effects. Moreover, they offer the potential to produce high-quality organic poultry products while reducing the likelihood of microbial resistance. Despite these advantages, inconsistent results among studies underscore the importance of standardized approaches to maximize their efficacy. This review aims to evaluate the current status of antibiotic use in poultry farming globally, explore the properties and mechanisms of PFAs, and assess their potential as viable alternatives to antibiotics. By consolidating available knowledge, this review provides insights into the benefits and challenges associated with PFAs, offering guidance for future research and practical applications in sustainable poultry production. Keywords: alternatives, antibiotics, phytogenic, poultry production.

Background: This experiment was designed to investigate how replacing antibiotics with postbiotics and paraprobiotics could affect growth performance, small intestine morphology, immune status, and hepatic growth gene expression in broiler chickens. Methods: The experiment followed a completely randomized design (CRD) in which eight treatments were replicated six times with seven birds per replicate. A total of 336, one-day-old (COBB 500) chicks were fed with the eight treatment diets, which include T1 = negative control (Basal diet), T2 = positive control (Basal diet + 0.01% (w/w) Oxytetracycline), T3 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) postbiotic TL1, T4 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) postbiotic RS5, T5 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) paraprobiotic RG11, T6 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) postbiotic RI11, T7 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) paraprobiotic RG14, T8 = Basal diet + 0.2% (v/w) paraprobiotic RI11, for 35 days in a closed house system. Results: The growth performance indicators (final body weight, cumulative weight gain, and feed conversion ratio) were not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by the dietary treatments. However, feed intake recorded a significant (p < 0.05) change in the starter and finisher phases across the dietary treatments. Paraprobiotic RG14 had significantly (p < 0.05) lower abdominal fat and intestines. Villi heights were significantly (p < 0.05) increased, while the crypt depth decreased significantly due to dietary treatments. The dietary treatments significantly influenced colon mucosa sIgA (p < 0.05). Similarly, plasma immunoglobulin IgM level recorded significant (p < 0.05) changes at the finisher phase. In this current study, the hepatic GHR and IGF-1 expressions were significantly (p < 0.05) increased by postbiotics and paraprobiotics supplementation. Conclusions: Therefore, it was concluded that postbiotics and paraprobiotics differ in their effect on broiler chickens. However, they can replace antibiotics without compromising the growth performance, carcass yield, and immune status of broiler chickens.

This study was conducted to evaluate the impact of feeding postbiotics and paraprobiotics produced from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum on colon mucosa microbiota in broiler chickens. In this study, 336 one-day-old COBB 500 chicks were randomly allotted to eight treatment groups and replicated six times with seven birds per replicate. The treatment included T1 (Negative control) = Basal diet, T2 (Positive control) = Basal diet + 0.01% oxytetracycline, T3 = Basal diet + 0.2% postbiotic TL1, T4 = Basal diet + 0.2% postbiotic RS5, T5 = Basal diet + 0.2% paraprobiotic RG11, T6 = Basal diet + 0.2% postbiotic RI11, T7 = Basal diet + 0.2% paraprobiotic RG14, and T8 = Basal diet + 0.2% paraprobiotic RI11. There were reported changes in the bacterial community using 16S rRNA sequencing of the colon mucosa. The results of the sequencing of 16S rRNA genes in the colon mucosa samples indicated that compared to birds fed the negative control diet, birds fed paraprobiotic RI11 diets were recorded to have a lower relative abundance of Proteobacteria, while those fed the positive control were recorded to have a higher proportion of Firmicutes. Also, lower Enterococcus was reported in paraprobiotic RI11, while the most abundant genus was Bacteroides in postbiotic TL1. This study revealed that supplementation of postbiotics and paraprobiotics in the diets of broilers demonstrated positive effects on the microbiota by supporting the increase of beneficial microbes like the Firmicutes while decreasing harmful microbes like the Proteobacteria. Therefore, this study has provided knowledge on the modification of chicken mucosa microbiota through the feeding of postbiotics and paraprobiotics.

Thermal treatment of food can lead to the formation of potentially harmful chemicals, known as process contaminants. These are adventitious contaminants that are formed in food during processing and preparation. Various food processing techniques, such as heating, drying, grilling, and fermentation, can generate hazardous chemicals such as acrylamide (AA), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), monochloropropane diols (MCPD) and their esters (MCPDE) which can be detrimental to human health. Despite efforts to prevent the formation of these compounds during processing, eliminating them is often challenging due to their unknown formation mechanisms. It is critical to identify the potential harm to human health in processed food and understand the mechanisms by which harmful compounds form during processing, as prolonged exposure to these toxic compounds can lead to health problems. Various mitigation strategies, such as the use of diverse pre- and post-processing treatments, product reformulation, additives, variable process conditions, and novel integrated processing techniques, have been proposed to control these food hazards. In this review, we summarize the formation and occurrence, the potential for harm to human health produced by process contaminants in food, and potential mitigation strategies to minimize their impact.

Antibiotics are natural, semi-synthetic, or chemical compounds that have anti-microbial activity and are used in livestock and poultry production for a variety of reasons, including therapeutic and growth promotion. The use of antibiotics in poultry production has been associated with the development of resistant bacteria. The present study attempted to explain the role of antibiotics as poultry growth promoters, bacterial resistance, and risks for human health, with a special focus on some selected bacterial species isolated from poultry farms and products. Furthermore, the manuscript reviewed the literature on alternative feed additives to reduce the reliance on antibiotics. Microbial resistance is a significant global health concern that has been a top global threat in the 21st century. The use of antibiotics in poultry production as non-therapeutic or growth promoters is at low doses and continuously, associated with developing resistant bacteria. Meanwhile, antibiotic-resistant genes in humans may have their roots in the diets of animals treated with antibiotics. Developing bacterial resistance has encouraged researchers to reduce the reliance on antibiotics by identifying potential feed additives, such as essential oils, bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, probiotics, prebiotics, organic acid, and enzymes that improve the immune system functions, reduce morbidity and mortality, improve the growth performances of poultry, and preserve consumer health.