The European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR), formally adopted as Regulation (EU) 2023/1115, seeks to reduce global deforestation by requiring deforestation-free and legally compliant supply chains for commodities including cocoa, coffee, palm oil, soy, cattle, wood, and rubber. While the regulation addresses urgent environmental concerns, it may generate significant collateral impacts on smallholder farmers in developing countries who play a central role in global commodity production. This review synthesizes evidence from selected value chains cocoa in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, palm oil in Indonesia, coffee in Ethiopia, and soy and cattle in Brazil to assess differentiated exposure to EUDR compliance requirements. Smallholders account for approximately 90% of global cocoa production, 80% of coffee, 30–40% of palm oil, and over 85% of natural rubber, yet often operate under informal land tenure systems and limited access to digital infrastructure. The EUDR’s mandatory due diligence requirements including plot-level geolocation, traceability systems, and risk mitigation may therefore impose disproportionate compliance costs. Evidence suggests that EU-driven deforestation risk is concentrated in a few commodities, with palm oil (34%), soy (32.8%), wood products (8.6%), cocoa (7.5%), and coffee (7%) accounting for the majority of embodied deforestation in EU imports. Across case studies, potential unintended impacts include exclusion from EU markets, increased administrative burdens, market consolidation, and deforestation leakage to less regulated markets. However, impacts vary significantly by commodity structure: while cocoa and coffee are smallholder-dominated systems, soy and cattle in Brazil are characterized by large-scale mechanized production supported by advanced land registry systems and producer associations, enabling comparatively stronger compliance capacity. The review concludes that EUDR outcomes will depend less on farm size alone and more on institutional infrastructure, digital readiness, and supply chain organization, highlighting the need for differentiated and inclusive implementation pathways.

Climate change is exerting profound and multidimensional pressures on global wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) production. Rising temperatures, higher vapor pressure deficit, and more frequent heatwaves reduce yields through strong, phenology‐dependent effects, with flowering and grain filling identified as the most vulnerable stages. Compound heat–drought events disproportionately depress grain number and weight, while erratic precipitation marked by prolonged dry spells, intense rainfall, and waterlogging further destabilizes yield and degrades soil fertility. Meta‐analytic evidence shows wheat yield reductions exceeding 50% under drought and ∼23% under waterlogging, with associated declines in grain quality. Elevated CO ₂ enhances photosynthesis and biomass in optimal conditions but fails to compensate for warming or drought and often lowers grain protein and mineral concentrations. Soil degradation, salinity, and nutrient imbalance are intensifying, while warming accelerates pest survival, reproduction, and geographic expansion, increasing biotic stress risks. Despite these challenges, multiple adaptation pathways demonstrate strong effectiveness. Drought‐tolerant cultivars, optimized sowing dates, deficit irrigation, mulching, conservation agriculture, and soil restorative practices significantly improve resilience. Precision agriculture, unmanned aerial vehicle remote sensing, Internet of Things‐enabled monitoring, and artificial intelligence (AI)‐driven decision‐support tools enhance early stress detection and management precision. Economic evidence consistently shows high returns from climate‐smart interventions. Strengthening policy coherence, climate‐informed services, and agricultural financing is essential to scale adaptation and secure wheat production under a warming climate.