Several issues of individual microgrids (MGs) such as voltage and frequency fluctuations mainly due to the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources’ (RESs) power production can be mitigated by interconnecting multiple MGs and forming a multi-microgrid (MMG) system. MMG systems improve the reliability and resiliency of power systems, increase RESs’ utilization, and provide cost-efficient power to the consumers. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the conducted studies in the MMG area summarizing different operational goals and constraints proposed in the literature for efficient operation of MMGs. Besides, different MMG architectures in which the MGs can be interconnected to form an MMG system and their characteristics are discussed. This paper also provides a state-of-the-art review on different control strategies and operation management methodologies for the operation and control of MMGs in centralized, decentralized, distributed, and hierarchical structures. A classification of different sources of uncertainties in an MMG system and proposed uncertainty handling strategies are also presented. Finally, the paper is complemented with a discussion of the main open issues and future research directions of MMG systems.

Spintronic devices based on domain wall (DW) motion through ferromagnetic nanowire tracks have received great interest as components of neuromorphic information processing systems. Previous proposals for spintronic artificial neurons required external stimuli to perform the leaking functionality, one of the three fundamental functions of a leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) neuron. The use of this external magnetic field or electrical current stimulus results in either a decrease in energy efficiency or an increase in fabrication complexity. In this article, we modify the shape of previously demonstrated three-terminal magnetic tunnel junction neurons to perform the leaking operation without any external stimuli. The trapezoidal structure causes a shape-based DW drift, thus intrinsically providing the leaking functionality with no hardware cost. This LIF neuron, therefore, promises to advance the development of spintronic neural network crossbar arrays.

Several space organizations have been planning to establish a permanent, manned base on the Moon in recent years. Such an installation demands a highly reliable electrical power system (EPS) to supply life support systems and scientific equipment and operate autonomously in a fully self-sufficient manner. This paper explores various technologies available for power generation, storage, and distribution for space microgrids on the Moon. Several factors affecting the cost and mass of the space missions are introduced and analysed to provide a comprehensive comparison among the available solutions. Besides, given the effect of base location on the design of a lunar electrical power system and the mission cost, various lunar sites are introduced and discussed. Finally, the control system requirements for the reliable and autonomous operation of space microgrids on the Moon are presented. The study is complemented by discussing promising future technological solutions that could be applied upon a lunar microgrid.

Space mission cost and feasibility depend mainly on the size and mass of the payload. This paper investigates the optimal photovoltaic (PV) array and battery size and mass for an islanded PV-battery powered space microgrid (MG) at the lunar south pole. The PV arrays are considered to be installed on top of towers to increase solar energy harvesting. Considering the dependency of the generated power from PV arrays on the tower height, different tower heights of 10, 50, and 100 m are investigated. The paper presents the methodology to estimate the available power from the PV system using the information of illumination time-series at the location of potential sites with different tower heights. Besides, considering the power demand of several power-consuming units at different operating states, the power demand profile of the lunar base is generated. The optimal sizing of the PV and battery system for a 1-year horizon, without considering battery degradation, results in a total mass of approximately 1.5×10 ⁵ kg to 3.5×10 ⁵ kg with a tower height of 10 m depending on the solar illumination profiles at different sites. For a 5-year optimization horizon of the same sites with 10 m tower height and considering the battery yearly capacity degradation, total system mass ranges approximately from 2 × 10 ⁵ kg to 5.5 × 10 ⁵ kg. Although increasing the tower height may considerably reduce the total size and mass of the battery and PV system, the mass of the PV tower will increase. Thus, a satisfactory trade-off in selecting the site location and tower height is required. In this regard, 15 highly illuminated sites at different locations and with different PV tower heights are assessed in this paper. To improve the reliability and flexibility of the power system, the multi-microgrid (MMG) concept is deployed to distribute the power-consuming units of the base among different MGs having their local energy production and storage systems. Finally, based on the total power demand served at a candidate site and the corresponding total system mass, a criterion, mass-per-unit-load (MPUL), is used to identify the sites that serve the highest power demand with less total system mass.

Energy management systems (EMS) and autonomous power control (APC) for space microgrids (MGs) on the Moon need properly designed operating points and references to ensure the mission's safety. The oxygen and water requirements of the lunar base are supplied by the In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) from the lunar regolith. ISRU is one of the most power-demanding subsystems in the lunar base. This paper proposes an optimization methodology for sizing and optimal operation management of a photovoltaic (PV)-battery-based space microgrid (MG). By solving the optimization problem, the optimal size of the PV array and battery, as well as the PV power generation and battery charging/discharging profiles are determined. First, the ISRU power demand profile is presented considering the oxygen and water management systems of the lunar base. Then, the optimization algorithm is employed to minimize the PV and battery mass and the total unused PV power generation while maintaining the desired level of energy in the battery considering system constraints. It is observed that curtailing the excess PV power generation plays a crucial role in minimizing the battery size and mass, thereby reducing the cost of the space mission.