The Amazon and the Atlantic Forest are Brazilian biomes that suffered an intense land use and land cover change, marked by the loss of native forest and expansion of agriculture and livestock. This article aims to analyze land use and land cover change history and to propose a sustainable alternative for agriculture and livestock as an opportunity for rural development in these biomes. The statistics of the platform from the Annual Mapping Project for Land Use and Land Cover in Brazil (MapBiomas) were used in an annual historical series from 1985 to 2020. The analysis of land use and land cover changes indicates that the Amazon native forest was reduced by 44.53 million hectares (Mha), while pasture, agriculture and planted forest increased by 38.10, 6.06 and 0.26 Mha, respectively, over the 35 years (1985 to 2020). In the Atlantic Forest, for the same period, forest and pasture reduced by 0.99 and 11.53 Mha, respectively, while agriculture expanded by 8.06 Mha and planted forest by 2.99 Mha. Sustainable land use strategies, such as the Integration Crop-Livestock-Forest (ICLF), can support the increase in agricultural production while recovering and preserving the environment. Policies and programs should consider regional particularities and barriers for more significant adoption of this strategy.

Recent advances in our understanding of methanogenesis have led to the development of antimethanogenic feed additives (AMFA) that can reduce enteric methane (CH₄) emissions to varying extents, via direct targeting of methanogens, alternative electron acceptors, or altering the rumen environment. Here we examine current and new approaches used for the accounting (i.e., quantification) of enteric CH₄ abatement by the use of AMFA in the livestock sector from the individual animal to the global scale. Along with this process, recommendations are provided on how to account for the mitigation potential at the animal level, as well as in farm-scale models, emissions trading schemes, life cycle assessment, and carbon (C) footprinting tools, and in regional and national inventories. In addition, an assessment of uncertainties and potential trade-offs and off-setting with the use of AMFA (i.e., efficacy vs. effectiveness, upstream and downstream emissions) is provided. The accounting of on-farm enteric CH₄ emissions and benefits from the use of AMFA starts with the ruminant animal (with estimates obtained from a range of approaches, from simple empirical emission factors or equations to complex process-based models) and goes all the way to national and supranational accounting. The choice of methodologies and levels of complexity to account for mitigation of enteric CH₄ (or total GHG) emissions in livestock systems must be tailored to the scale of analysis aimed, the availability of input data to represent contextualized conditions, and the accounting objectives (e.g., academic exercise vs. producer's GHG certification vs. national GHG inventory). The accounting of enteric CH₄ mitigating effects needs to consider the AMFA delivery methods and synergies and trade-offs of GHG emissions at levels before and beyond (upstream and downstream) the animal to fully assess the impact of AMFA use. At large, the accounting of methane abatement by feed additives remains to be fully assessed beyond experimental results (efficacy) to address pragmatism (effectiveness), potential for adoption, and societal acceptance.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the Agriculture, Forest, and Other Land Use sector account for 23% of net global anthropogenic emissions. However, effective conservation agriculture practices can sequester carbon (C) up to 1 m in soil depth and vegetation biomass. Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forestry (ICLF) systems attempt to ensure sustainable agricultural production by combining various agricultural, livestock, and forestry production systems. This bibliographic review aims to present and discuss ICLF systems and their advantages and disadvantages compared with conventional systems, achieving a better understanding of the sources and sinks of GHGs (CH₄, N₂O, and CO₂). Integrated systems exist in tropical and temperate climates with different practices, arrangements, designs, and modalities. Intercropping species with different root structures provides more ecological interactions that enhance biodiversity, soil quality, and C sequestration while reducing GHG emissions. Yet, ICLF systems are complex and require technical assistance and support for being implemented, besides an extensive initial investment that increases the cost of operation. A relevant carbon sink in ICLF systems is carbon from tree biomass, where the wood can be used for various purposes. Timber for sawmills and general construction has a longer C immobilization time. Methane from enteric fermentation is the greatest contributor to GHG emissions in livestock and ICLF systems. Nitrous oxide is released primarily from synthetic fertilizers (when applied), manure deposited on pastures, and the decomposition of plant residues. Carbon dioxide is emitted to a lesser extent from the application of lime and urea. Many studies do not include all compartments in the C balance and often focus on only one GHG or compartment of C. Accordingly, more studies on the sources and sinks of C and their potential to offset GHG emissions in terms of CO₂ equivalent are urged.

En pecán, el área de proyección de copa (APC), el diámetro de tronco (DBH) y la altura del árbol (H) son componentes de la arquitectura arbórea que interactúan entre sí y con el suelo. El objetivo de este trabajo fue validar si las relaciones funcionales de la arquitectura arbórea a nivel intraárbol y su interrelación con los recursos edáficos (carbono orgánico del suelo [COS] y zinc [Zn]) observadas en otras plantaciones frutales ocurren también en una plantación de pecán bajo las condiciones edafoclimáticas específicas del sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Para ello se determinaron: el APC mediante fotogrametría utilizando un dron mini, COS, nitratos, amonio y Zn en suelo (0-20 cm de profundidad) e indicadores dasométricos (DBH, altura), medidos con cinta métrica y regla telescópica. Las determinaciones se realizaron durante el mes de abril (coincidiendo con el momento del fin del llenado de la nuez) durante los años 2022, 2023 y 2024 en una plantación multicultivar ubicada en la EEA INTA Balcarce (37,76º S, 58,29º O). Se encontraron correlaciones positivas para APC vs. DBH, DBH vs. H, y APC vs. H (en todos los casos, p<0,001), APC vs. COS (r=0,63, p=0,001) (2022, 2023 y 2024), y para la concentración de Zn vs. APC (r=0,54, p=0,03) (2022 y 2023). Nuestros resultados indican que los parámetros medidos intraplanta (APC, DBH y H) se retroalimentan positivamente, pero la variable más asociada a los recursos disponibles que se encuentren en el suelo es el APC.

We introduce triproximity, a conceptual framework that organizes tree–soil greenhouse gas (GHG) interactions across three spatial dimensions: (i) horizontal distance from tree stems, (ii) vertical soil profile depth, and (iii) structural position relative to tree components including the stem itself as a gas conduit. This addresses a critical and previously unquantified methodological gap in the literature. Despite the inherent spatial heterogeneity of tree-based agricultural systems, where molecular oxygen gradients structured by root macropore networks, rhizosphere demand, and canopy-mediated moisture redistribution govern CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄ fluxes across distances of just a few meters from the stem, most studies report GHG emissions from single locations without documenting distance from trees, effectively assuming spatial homogeneity where none exists. Following PRISMA guidelines, we systematically reviewed 107 field-based studies identified through a Scopus search (December 2025) of tree-based systems published between 2010 and 2025. Only 37.4% of studies explicitly reported measurement distance from trees, a proportion that has not improved despite a nearly four-fold increase in publication volume since 2020. Through narrative synthesis, we show that CH₄ uptake follows the most consistent spatial response, with higher oxidation rates in the near-tree zone across diverse system types; N₂O responses are context-dependent and governed by competing substrate availability and moisture controls; and CO₂ fluxes show no universal spatial pattern yet respond predictably to specific proximity dimensions once the dominant source term is identified. Stem-level gas transport remains virtually unmeasured across the dataset, likely biasing ecosystem GHG budgets systematically. We propose a minimum triproximity-based sampling protocol for five major tree-based system types and call for journals to adopt spatial reporting as a minimum submission standard. This review was not pre-registered and received no external funding.