Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1‐km²resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1‐km²pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse‐grained air temperature estimates from ERA5‐Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome‐specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near‐surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil‐related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.

Summary: 1. Pollen limitation may be a consequence of changes in pollinator abundance, diversity and identity. However, no empirical evidence exists concerning the consequences that the spatial variation in pollinator fauna has on pollen limitation intensity and plant reproduction. In this study, we test the effect that changes in flower‐visitor abundance, diversity and identity exert on the occurrence and strength of pollen limitation by experimentally quantifying pollen limitation in eight populations ofErysimum mediohispanicum, a pollination‐generalist plant native to the Iberian Peninsula.2. Pollen limitation was accounted for by using a comprehensive estimator, the net reproductive rate (R₀). Nevertheless, we also determined which components of plant reproduction, from ovule fertilization to seedling survival, were more intensely pollen‐limited. Finally, we explored whether the spatial variation in pollen limitation intensity was related to among‐population changes in flower‐visitor abundance, diversity and identity.3. The whole reproductive cycle ofE. mediohispanicumwas pollen‐limited, although pollen limitation occurred more strongly during the ovule fertilization and seed‐production phases than during fruit ripening or seedling emergence and establishment.4. There was a significant among‐population difference in pollen limitation intensity. Pollen limitation strength was associated with variations in flower‐visitor diversity, and identity. Populations with lower flower‐visitor diversity and with many low‐efficiency pollinators (i.e. beetles) showed stronger pollen limitation.5. Synthesis. Our study shows that the intensity of pollen limitation at the population level may depend on several characteristics of the assemblage of flower‐visiting insects, such as their abundance, diversity and identity. Our results suggest that any impoverishment of pollinator diversity or any alteration in the specific composition of the pollinator assemblage may exacerbate pollen limitation.