This study proposes a legal framework for the successful operation of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS). It discusses the legal status of a remote operator of MASS, and the possibility of granting them status as a ship employee or master. This research argues that the status of seafarer or deemed seafarer should be required for R-level MASS, and the status of master or deemed master with the right to command in matters relating to ship operation be conferred for RU- and A-level MASS. The study presents an expanded notion of seafarers by extending the combination of ship and human elements—concerning seafarers in existing international maritime conventions—to deem remote operators of MASS ship employees. Further, it suggested that remote operators be regarded as a human element by perpetuating the notion of the master, retaining their status as the final entity of responsibility for the ship, even if the cutting-edge information and communication technology (ICT)-based commercialization of MASS is realized.

Maritime transport accounts for approximately 80–90% of global trade and nearly 3% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In response, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted an ambitious strategy for net-zero emissions by 2050, critically mandating a Well-to-Wake (WtW) life-cycle assessment for fuels. This framework invalidates fuels produced with high carbon intensity, regardless of their emissions at the point of use, thereby compelling the industry to focus on truly clean and sustainable alternatives. This push positions green hydrogen and ammonia as leading solutions, though they present a distinct trade-off. Hydrogen is an ideal fuel with zero-carbon emission in fuel cells but faces significant storage challenges due to its extremely low volumetric energy density and cryogenic requirements. In contrast, ammonia offers superior energy density and easier handling but contends with issues of toxicity and potentially harmful emissions like nitrous oxide. This paper provides a comprehensive review of this complex landscape, analyzing the production, utilization, and associated techno-economic and geopolitical challenges of using hydrogen and ammonia as future marine fuels, with environmental aspects briefly considered.

Seafarers are recognized as essential workers responsible for maintaining the national logistics supply chain. This study analyzes the sustainable seafarers’ employment and welfare systems in South Korea and China using the comparative case study approach and presents relevant implications. In the era of the “New Normal” after the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, which is marked by hyper-personalization, seafarers have become increasingly resistant to acquiring maritime education and performing onboard duties. Even though South Korea has recognized seafarers as key agents of national economic growth, the participation of the new generation in the shipping industry has recently been declining. Meanwhile, China has been developing its shipping industry since the Deng Xiaoping reforms and fosters skilled seafarers by providing rigorous maritime education. However, both countries have been experiencing difficulties in ensuring the legal and social protection of seafarers; hence, the challenge of providing sustainable employment and welfare to seafarers remains. In conclusion, this study proposes the establishment of the “Asia Maritime Education, Employment, and Welfare Support Center” to support seafarers’ employment and welfare with the cooperation of other countries in the Asian region.

The Serious Accidents Punishment Act (SAPA) of South Korea mandates that chief executives secure operational safety and health to prevent industrial and civil disasters. The SAPA imposes civil and criminal responsibilities on chief executive officers, including business owners, for fatal accidents due to safety and health measures violations. We examine the SAPA’s challenges to the shipping industry and the measures taken by ship owners and ship management companies to address them. In the modern shipping industry, ships and crew often have different nationalities; hence, it may be difficult to determine which law applies or where liability lies. Business activities are mostly overseas. Ship management is performed by third parties, and the introduction of autonomous systems is leading to crew reductions and other changes; these factors create uncertainty about the SAPA’s applicability. Therefore, legal requirements and measures must be established to ensure that South Korean shipping companies do not take on excessive responsibilities internationally while still protecting workers and others. This study suggests measures to ensure safety and stability in the South Korean shipping industry following the SAPA through a horizontal comparative analysis with the UK’s Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007, which served as a model for the SAPA.