In this paper, we propose a method that makes it possible to use an ultrathin calorimeter for direct measurements of cosmic rays with energies of TeV and higher. The problems of determining the primary energy with a thin calorimeter, due to large fluctuations in shower development, the low statistics of analyzed events and the large size required for the calorimeter, are considered in detail. A solution to these problems is proposed on the basis of a lessening fluctuation method. This method is based on the assumption of the universality of the development of cascades initiated by particles of the same energy and mass. For energy reconstruction, so-called correlation curves are used. The main analyzed quantities are the size of the cascade and the rate of its development. The method was tested using the calorimeter of the PAMELA collaboration. Based on simulations, it is shown that the primary energy can be determined on the ascending branch of the cascade curve. This fact solves the problems associated with the need to increase the calorimeter thickness with an increase in primary energy and with the limitation of the analyzed events. The proposed technique is universal for different energies and different nuclei.

Tin dioxide thin films were obtained by centrifuging. Annealing of samples was carried out in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 400 °C for 15 min, 3, 6 and 12 h. The surface resistance of the films was measured by four-force method. The sensitivity to ethanol vapour was determined by experimental setup that allows measurements in the range from room temperature to 300 °C. There is a change in the acidity of the solution with the addition of ammonium fluoride. To take into consideration this change in acidity, three batches of solutions were prepared: one example without additives, another one ‒ with the addition of ammonium fluoride and the last one ‒ with the addition of ammonium hydroxide. Films synthesized from a film-forming solution containing NH4F have less resistance than films obtained from solutions that do not contain ammonium fluoride. This confirms the presence of fluorine ions in the films as additional sources of free charge carriers. It is found that the pH-indicator of the film-forming solution does not affect the surface resistance of the synthesized SnO2 films. Annealing of fluoride doped films leads to an increase in surface resistance by two orders of magnitude, which is associated with the removal of fluorine from the films and the formation of a large number of defects. Further annealing leads to a decrease in surface resistance, which seems to be associated with a decrease in defects. It is shown that the change in the hydrogen index of the film-forming solution leads to the formation of films with a thermally stable sensitivity to ethanol vapour.

The initial state, about which there is usually very little direct experimental information, leads to significant fluctuations in the distribution of secondary particles and fragments. In this paper, to estimate the initial state the fragmentation parameters of interacting nuclei are analyzed. To investigate the correlations, the Hurst method is used. A detailed study of event-by-event pseudo-rapidity correlations in terms of the Hurst index, multiplicity of secondary particles and target dependence has been carried out for heavy (AgBr) and light (HCNO) targets present in the nuclear emulsion (NIKFI BR-2) using Au-197 projectiles at 10.6 A GeV. Evidences of short-range particle correlations and cluster formation in the pseudo-rapidity space are found from our analysis. The total ensemble of events has been divided into four classes depending on the behavior of Hurst index: uncorrelated, with short-range correlations, with long-range correlations and mixed. Events of various types differ significantly in the multiplicity of secondary particles, fragmentation of the projectile nucleus, and have significant differences in the pseudo-rapidity distribution of secondary particles.

Thin films of tin dioxide were obtained from five-water tin tetrachloride by dissolution in 97% ethanol. The concentration of tin ions in the film-forming solution was 0.12 mol/l, 0.16 mol/l, 0.2 mol/l. The film-forming solution SnCl4/EtOH was applied to the surface of glass substrates by a modified dipping method. Substrates were dried in the air and then annealed at 400°C. Just 4 layers were applied. Hydrogen plasma treatment was carried out at a pressure of 6.5 Pa, power of 20 Watts, oscillation frequency generated by the equipment 27.12 MHz ±0.6%. The decrease of transparency, within the limits of accuracy of measurement of the films obtained from film-forming system with a concentration of tin ions of 0.12 mol/l and 0.2 mol/l were observed. The transparency of the films obtained from film-forming systems with tin ion concentration 0.16 mol/l decreased by 3%. The resistance of the films decreased by 1.5 times. X-ray diffraction analysis showed an increase in the intensity of diffraction peaks from the planes of SnO2 crystallites. An important technical result was obtained: a decrease in the resistance of SnO2 thin films without a significant decrease in transparency, using a film-forming solution with a tin ion concentration of 0.12 mol/l and 0.2 mol/l after treatment for 3 minutes in hydrogen plasma. 4-валентті қалайы оксидінің жұқа қабықшалары судың бестік қалайы тетрахлоридтің 97%-ті этанолда ерітуімен алынған. Қабықша құраушы ерітінді жүйесінде қалайы иондарының концентрациясы 0,12 моль/л, 0,16 моль/л, 0,2 моль/л болды. Олар ауада кептіріліп, одан кейін 4000 С температурасында муфельді пешке жағылды. Барлығы 4 қабатты қабықшалар болды. Сутекті плазмамен өңдеу қысымы 6,5 Па, қуаты 20 Ватт, генератордың жұмыс істеу тербеліс жиілігі 27,12 МГц± 0,6% кезінде жүргізілді. Қалайы иондарының концентрациясы 0,16 моль/л болатын қабықша құраушы ерітіндіден алынған қабықшалардың мөлдірлігі 3% - ға азайды. Қабықшалардың кедергісі 1.5 есе азайды. Рентгенқұрылымдық талдау SnO2 кристаллдарының жазықтығынан дифракциялық шыңдардың қарқындылығын көрсетті. Соңында маңызды техникалық нәтиже алынды: мөлдірлікті айтарлықтай азайтпай, қалайы иондарының концентрациясы 0,12 моль/л және 0,2 моль/л болатын қабықша құраушы ерітіндіден алынған қабықшалардың сутегі плазмасында 3 минут ішінде өңдегеннен кейін SnO2 жұқа қабықшаларының кедергісі азайтылды. Тонкие пленки оксида олова получали из пятиводного тетрахлорида олова растворением в 97% этаноле. Концентрация ионов олова в пленкообразующей системе была 0,12 моль/л, 0,16 моль/л, 0,2 моль/л. Пленкообразующую систему SnCl4/EtOH наносили на поверхность стеклянных подложек модифицированным методом окунания. Сушили на воздухе и затем отжигали при 400оС. Было нанесено 4 слоя. Обработка водородной плазмой проводилась при давлении 6,5 Па, мощности 20 Ватт, частоте колебаний создаваемых генератором 27,12 МГц±0,6%. Обнаружено уменьшение прозрачности, в пределах точности измерений, пленок, полученных из пленкообразующей системы с концентрацией ионов олова 0,12 моль/л и 0,2 моль/л. Прозрачность пленок, полученных из пленкообразующей системы с концентрацией ионов олова 0,16 моль/л уменьшилось на 3%. Сопротивление пленок уменьшилось в 1,5 раз. Рентгеноструктурный анализ показал рост интенсивности дифракционных пиков от плоскостей кристаллитов SnO2. Получен важный технический результат: уменьшение сопротивления тонких пленок SnO2 без значительного уменьшения прозрачности, при использовании пленкообразующей системы с концентрацией ионов олова 0,12 моль/л и 0,2 моль/л после обработки в течение 3 минут в водородной плазме.